{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]],"date-time":"2026-09-21T14:07:45Z","timestamp":1789999665587,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":105,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,10]],"date-time":"2023-02-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1675987200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Italian University Ministry","award":["2015HFWRYY_001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2015HFWRYY_001"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Bioengineering"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Estimation of the force exerted by muscles from their electromyographic (EMG) activity may be useful to control robotic devices. Approximating end-point forces as a linear combination of the activities of multiple muscles acting on a limb may lead to an inaccurate estimation because of the dependency between the EMG signals, i.e., multi-collinearity. This study compared the EMG-to-force mapping estimation performed with standard multiple linear regression and with three other algorithms designed to reduce different sources of the detrimental effects of multi-collinearity: Ridge Regression, which performs an L2 regularization through a penalty term; linear regression with constraints from foreknown anatomical boundaries, derived from a musculoskeletal model; linear regression of a reduced number of muscular degrees of freedom through the identification of muscle synergies. Two datasets, both collected during the exertion of submaximal isometric forces along multiple directions with the upper limb, were exploited. One included data collected across five sessions and the other during the simultaneous exertion of force and generation of different levels of co-contraction. The accuracy and consistency of the EMG-to-force mappings were assessed to determine the strengths and drawbacks of each algorithm. When applied to multiple sessions, Ridge Regression achieved higher accuracy (R2 = 0.70) but estimations based on muscle synergies were more consistent (differences between the pulling vectors of mappings extracted from different sessions: 67%). In contrast, the implementation of anatomical constraints was the best solution, both in terms of consistency (R2 = 0.64) and accuracy (74%), in the case of different co-contraction conditions. These results may be used for the selection of the mapping between EMG and force to be implemented in myoelectrically controlled robotic devices.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bioengineering10020234","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,10]],"date-time":"2023-02-10T02:09:59Z","timestamp":1675994999000},"page":"234","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Use of Surface Electromyography to Estimate End-Point Force in Redundant Systems: Comparison between Linear Approaches"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9456-0177","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Daniele","family":"Borzelli","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical and Dental Sciences and Morphofunctional Imaging, University of Messina, 98124 Messina, Italy"},{"name":"Laboratory of Neuromotor Physiology, IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, 00179 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1950-4631","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sergio","family":"Gurgone","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Information and Neural Networks (CiNet), Advanced ICT Research Institute, National Institute of Information and Communications Technology, Suita City 565-0871, Osaka, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Paolo","family":"De Pasquale","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical and Dental Sciences and Morphofunctional Imaging, University of Messina, 98124 Messina, Italy"},{"name":"Laboratory of Neuromotor Physiology, IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, 00179 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8125-4712","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nicola","family":"Lotti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institut fur Technische Informatik (ZITI), Heidelberg University, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3393-4956","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrea","family":"d\u2019Avella","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical and Dental Sciences and Morphofunctional Imaging, University of Messina, 98124 Messina, Italy"},{"name":"Laboratory of Neuromotor Physiology, IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, 00179 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3921-3022","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Laura","family":"Gastaldi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Politecnico di Torino, 10129 Turin, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fern\u00e1ndez-L\u00e1zaro, D., Mielgo-Ayuso, J., Adams, D.P., Gonz\u00e1lez-Bernal, J.J., Fern\u00e1ndez Araque, A., Cano Garc\u00eda, A., and Fern\u00e1ndez-L\u00e1zaro, C.I. 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