{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,20]],"date-time":"2026-08-20T14:43:33Z","timestamp":1787237013077,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,15]],"date-time":"2023-11-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1700006400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Chang Gung Memorial Hospital","award":["CMRPG5K0061"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CMRPG5K0061"]}]},{"name":"Chang Gung Memorial Hospital","award":["MOST 110-2223-E-182-001-MY3"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MOST 110-2223-E-182-001-MY3"]}]},{"name":"National Science and Technology Council","award":["CMRPG5K0061"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CMRPG5K0061"]}]},{"name":"National Science and Technology Council","award":["MOST 110-2223-E-182-001-MY3"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MOST 110-2223-E-182-001-MY3"]}]},{"name":"National Taiwan University Royal Palm Elite Doctoral Scholarship","award":["CMRPG5K0061"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CMRPG5K0061"]}]},{"name":"National Taiwan University Royal Palm Elite Doctoral Scholarship","award":["MOST 110-2223-E-182-001-MY3"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MOST 110-2223-E-182-001-MY3"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Bioengineering"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Dental caries on the crown\u2019s surface is caused by the interaction of bacteria and carbohydrates, which then gradually alter the tooth\u2019s structure. In addition, calculus is the root of periodontal disease. Optical coherence tomography (OCT) has been considered to be a promising tool for identifying dental caries; however, diagnosing dental caries in the early stage still remains challenging. In this study, we proposed an ultrahigh-resolution OCT (UHR-OCT) system with axial and transverse resolutions of 2.6 and 1.8 \u03bcm for differentiating the early-stage dental caries and calculus. The same teeth were also scanned by a conventional spectral-domain OCT (SD-OCT) system with an axial resolution of 7 \u03bcm. The results indicated that early-stage carious structures such as small cavities can be observed using UHR-OCT; however, the SD-OCT system with a lower resolution had difficulty identifying it. Moreover, the estimated surface roughness and the scattering coefficient of enamel were proposed for quantitatively differentiating the different stages of caries. Furthermore, the thickness of the calculus can be estimated from the UHR-OCT results. The results have demonstrated that UHR-OCT can detect caries and calculus in their early stages, showing that the proposed method for the quantitative evaluation of caries and calculus is potentially promising.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bioengineering10111317","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,15]],"date-time":"2023-11-15T10:51:37Z","timestamp":1700045497000},"page":"1317","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Quantitative Evaluation of Caries and Calculus with Ultrahigh-Resolution Optical Coherence Tomography"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-5069-3166","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tai-Ang","family":"Wang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate Institute of Photonics and Optoelectronics, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10617, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nguy\u1ec5n Ho\u00e0ng","family":"Trung","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical Engineering, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2976-6195","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hsiang-Chieh","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate Institute of Photonics and Optoelectronics, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10617, Taiwan"},{"name":"Department of Electrical Engineering, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10617, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cheng-Kuang","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"NVIDIA AI Technology Center, NVIDIA, Taipei 11492, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5085-822X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Meng-Tsan","family":"Tsai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical Engineering, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan"},{"name":"Department of Dermatology, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou 33305, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yen-Li","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Periodontics, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan 33378, Taiwan"},{"name":"College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.bdj.2017.224","article-title":"Evidence summary: The relationship between oral and cardiovascular disease","volume":"222","author":"Dietrich","year":"2017","journal-title":"Br. Dent. J."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"228","article-title":"Dental disease, caries related microflora and salivary IgA of children with severe congenital cardiac disease: An epidemiological and oral microbial survey","volume":"18","author":"Franco","year":"1996","journal-title":"Pediatr. Dent."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chang, P.S., Huang, C.J., Hsiang, C.L., Lai, H., and Tsai, A.I. (2021). Prevalence of dental caries and periodontal disease of high school students aged 15 to 18 years in Taiwan. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18199967"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17030","DOI":"10.1038\/nrdp.2017.30","article-title":"Dental caries","volume":"3","author":"Pitts","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Dis. Primers."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17038","DOI":"10.1038\/nrdp.2017.38","article-title":"Periodontal diseases","volume":"3","author":"Kinane","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Dis. Primers."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"961","DOI":"10.1038\/s41415-022-5266-7","article-title":"Dental calculus\u2013Oral health, forensic studies and archaeology: A review","volume":"233","author":"Forshaw","year":"2022","journal-title":"Br. Dent. J."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-011-2342-y","article-title":"Periodontitis and diabetes: A two-way relationship","volume":"55","author":"Preshaw","year":"2012","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jdent.2017.03.004","article-title":"Imaging resin infiltration into non-cavitated carious lesions by optical coherence tomography","volume":"60","author":"Schneider","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Dent."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shimada, Y., Sato, T., Inoue, G., Nakagawa, H., Tabata, T., Zhou, Y., Hiraishi, N., Gondo, T., Takano, S., and Ushijima, K. (2022). Evaluation of Incipient Enamel Caries at Smooth Tooth Surfaces Using SS-OCT. Materials, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma15175947"},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"17","article-title":"Dental Caries Detection: The State of the Art","volume":"5","author":"Aldossari","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Appl. Dent. Med."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.21037\/fomm-21-57","article-title":"A narrative review of imaging tools for imaging subgingival calculus","volume":"5","author":"Chang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Oral Maxillofac. Med."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1708-8240.2003.tb00963.x","article-title":"Definitive diagnosis of early enamel and dentin cracks based on microscopic evaluation","volume":"15","author":"Clark","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Esthet. Restor. Dent."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"330","DOI":"10.1016\/0030-4220(86)90017-4","article-title":"Clinical efficacy of dental radiography in the detection of dental caries and periodontal diseases","volume":"62","author":"Douglass","year":"1986","journal-title":"Oral Surg. Oral Med. Oral Pathol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1902\/jop.2009.090419","article-title":"An update on novel non-invasive approaches for periodontal diagnosis","volume":"81","author":"Xiang","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Periodontol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1741","DOI":"10.3390\/s21051741","article-title":"Detection of dental caries and cracks with quantitative light-induced fluorescence in comparison to radiographic and visual examination: A retrospective case study","volume":"21","author":"Oh","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1178","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1957169","article-title":"Optical coherence tomography","volume":"254","author":"Huang","year":"1991","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Drexler, W., and Fujimoto, J.G. (2008). Optical Coherence Tomography: Technology and Applications, Springer Science & Business Media.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-77550-8"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15847","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.16.015847","article-title":"Effective indicators for diagnosis of oral cancer using optical coherence tomography","volume":"16","author":"Tsai","year":"2008","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2339","DOI":"10.1364\/BOE.419378","article-title":"Quantitative spectroscopic comparison of the optical properties of mouse cochlea microstructures using optical coherence tomography at 1.06 \u03bcm and 1.3 \u03bcm wavelengths","volume":"12","author":"Tsai","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biomed. Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1838","DOI":"10.1364\/BOE.8.001838","article-title":"Polarization sensitive optical coherence tomography\u2014A review","volume":"8","author":"Hitzenberger","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biomed. Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1329","DOI":"10.1364\/OPTICA.5.001329","article-title":"Optic axis mapping with catheter-based polarization-sensitive optical coherence tomography","volume":"5","author":"Villiger","year":"2018","journal-title":"Optica"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Golde, J., Tetschke, F., Walther, J., Rosenauer, T., Hempel, F., Hannig, C., Koch, E., and Kirsten, L. (2018). Detection of carious lesions utilizing depolarization imaging by polarization sensitive optical coherence tomography. J. Biomed. Opt., 23.","DOI":"10.1117\/1.JBO.23.7.071203"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hsiao, T.Y., Lee, S.Y., and Sun, C.W. (2019). Optical Polarimetric Detection for Dental Hard Tissue Diseases Characterization. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19224971"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3629","DOI":"10.1364\/BOE.460575","article-title":"Intraoral optical coherence tomography and angiography combined with autofluorescence for dental assessment","volume":"13","author":"Le","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biomed. Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3824","DOI":"10.1109\/JLT.2021.3061606","article-title":"High Resolution Optical Coherence Tomography","volume":"39","author":"Ge","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Light. Technol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1221","DOI":"10.1364\/BOE.8.001221","article-title":"Ultrahigh-resolution OCT imaging of the human cornea","volume":"8","author":"Werkmeister","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biomed. Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5687","DOI":"10.1364\/BOE.10.005687","article-title":"Ultrahigh-resolution optical coherence tomography\/angiography with an economic and compact supercontinuum laser","volume":"10","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biomed. Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Drexler, W., and Fujimoto, J.G. (2015). Optical Coherence Tomography\u2014Technology and Applications, Springer. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-06419-2"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wijesinghe, R.E., Cho, N.H., Park, K., Jeon, M., and Kim, J. (2016). Biophotonic detection and quantitative evaluation method for the progression of dental caries using optical frequency-domain imaging method. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16122076"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, C.K., Tsai, M.T., Lee, H.C., Chen, H.M., Chiang, C.P., Wang, Y.M., and Yang, C.C. (2009). Diagnosis of oral submucous fibrosis with optical coherence tomography. J. Biomed. Opt., 14.","DOI":"10.1364\/ACP.2009.TuG4"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kashiwa, M., Shimada, Y., Sadr, A., Yoshiyama, M., Sumi, Y., and Tagamin, J. (2020). Diagnosis of occlusal tooth wear using 3D imaging of optical coherence tomography ex vivo. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20216016"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7560645","DOI":"10.1155\/2017\/7560645","article-title":"The Use of Optical Coherence Tomography in Dental Diagnostics: A State-of-the-Art Review","volume":"2017","author":"Machoy","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Healthc. Eng."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17154","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-53567-7","article-title":"Early detection of enamel demineralization by optical coherence tomography","volume":"9","author":"Tsai","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hsieh, Y.S., Ho, Y.C., Lee, S.Y., Lu, C.W., Jiang, C.P., Chuang, C.C., Wang, C.Y., and Sun, C.W. (2011). Subgingival calculus imaging based on swept-source optical coherence tomography. J. Biomed. Opt., 16.","DOI":"10.1117\/1.3602851"},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"1327","article-title":"3D imaging of proximal caries in posterior teeth using optical coherence tomography","volume":"11","author":"Shimada","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"1","article-title":"On the relationship between calculus and caries","volume":"19","author":"Duckworth","year":"2006","journal-title":"Monogr. Oral Sci."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ng, C.Y., Wang, T.A., Lee, H.C., Huang, B.H., and Tsai, M.T. (2022). In vivo identification of skin photodamage induced by fractional CO2 and picosecond Nd:YAG lasers with optical coherence tomography. Diagnostics, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics12040822"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1159\/000260867","article-title":"A scanning electron microscopic study of progressive stages of enamel caries in vivo","volume":"19","author":"Holmen","year":"1985","journal-title":"Caries Res."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1016\/0043-1648(62)90002-9","article-title":"Characterization of surface roughness","volume":"5","author":"Myers","year":"1962","journal-title":"Wear"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.1016\/S0141-6359(02)00103-4","article-title":"Recent advances in separation of roughness, waviness and form","volume":"26","author":"Raja","year":"2002","journal-title":"Precis. Eng."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s11633-013-0690-4","article-title":"Robust filtration techniques in geometrical metrology and their comparison","volume":"10","author":"Lou","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Autom. Comput."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1364\/BOE.5.000322","article-title":"Depth-resolved model-based reconstruction of attenuation coefficients in optical coherence tomography","volume":"5","author":"Vermeer","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biomed. Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4353","DOI":"10.1364\/OPEX.12.004353","article-title":"Quantitative measurement of attenuation coefficients of weakly scattering media using optical coherence tomography","volume":"12","author":"Faber","year":"2004","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2404","DOI":"10.1364\/OPEX.12.002404","article-title":"Ultrahigh-resolution, high-speed, Fourier domain optical coherence tomography and methods for dispersion compensation","volume":"12","author":"Wojtkowski","year":"2004","journal-title":"Biomed. Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2092","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.38.002092","article-title":"Characterization of dentin and enamel by use of optical coherence tomography","volume":"38","author":"Wang","year":"1999","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"596","DOI":"10.1002\/jbio.201500111","article-title":"Evaluation of dental enamel caries assessment using Quantitative Light Induced Fluorescence and Optical Coherence Tomography","volume":"9","author":"Maia","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Biophotonics"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Darling, C.L., Huynh, G.D., and Fried, D. (2006). Light scattering properties of natural and artificially demineralized dental enamel at 1310 nm. J. Biomed. Opt., 11.","DOI":"10.1117\/1.2204603"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1278","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.34.001278","article-title":"Nature of light scattering in dental enamel and dentin at visible and near-infrared wavelengths","volume":"34","author":"Fried","year":"1995","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Popescu, D.P., Sowa, M.G., Hewko, M.D., and Choo-Smith, L.P. (2008). Assessment of early demineralization in teeth using the signal attenuation in optical coherence tomography images. J. Biomed. Opt., 13.","DOI":"10.1117\/1.2992129"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1038\/s41368-022-00167-3","article-title":"Expert consensus on dental caries management","volume":"14","author":"Cheng","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Oral Sci."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Luong, M.N., Shimada, Y., Araki, K., Yoshiyama, M., Tagami, J., and Sadr, A. (2020). Diagnosis of occlusal caries with dynamic slicing of 3D optical coherence tomography images. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20061659"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"418","DOI":"10.2334\/josnusd.17-0289","article-title":"In vitro and clinical evaluation of optical coherence tomography for the detection of subgingival calculus and root cementum","volume":"60","author":"Tsubokawa","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Oral Sci."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Won, J., Huang, P.C., Spillman, D.R., Chaney, E.J., Adam, R., Klukowska, M., Barkalifa, R., and Boppart, S.A. (2020). Handheld optical coherence tomography for clinical assessment of dental plaque and gingiva. J. Biomed. Opt., 25.","DOI":"10.1117\/1.JBO.25.11.116011"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"826","DOI":"10.1364\/BOE.3.000826","article-title":"Noninvasive in vivo structural and vascular imaging of human oral tissues with spectral domain optical coherence tomography","volume":"3","author":"Davoudi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Biomed. Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"524","DOI":"10.1364\/BOE.6.000524","article-title":"In vivo wide-field reflectance\/fluorescence imaging and polarization-sensitive optical coherence tomography of human oral cavity with a forward-viewing probe","volume":"6","author":"Yoon","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biomed. Opt. Express"}],"container-title":["Bioengineering"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2306-5354\/10\/11\/1317\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T21:23:33Z","timestamp":1760131413000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2306-5354\/10\/11\/1317"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,15]]},"references-count":55,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,11]]}},"alternative-id":["bioengineering10111317"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/bioengineering10111317","relation":{},"ISSN":["2306-5354"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2306-5354","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,15]]}}}