{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,23]],"date-time":"2026-04-23T01:58:15Z","timestamp":1776909495754,"version":"3.51.2"},"reference-count":54,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,23]],"date-time":"2024-01-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1705968000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Bioengineering"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Medical applications of optical technology have increased tremendously in recent decades. Label-free techniques have the unique advantage of investigating biological samples in vivo without introducing exogenous agents. This is especially beneficial for a rapid clinical translation as it reduces the need for toxicity studies and regulatory approval for exogenous labels. Emerging applications have utilized label-free optical technology for screening, diagnosis, and surgical guidance. Advancements in detection technology and rapid improvements in artificial intelligence have expedited the clinical implementation of some optical technologies. Among numerous biomedical application areas, middle-ear disease is a unique space where label-free technology has great potential. The middle ear has a unique anatomical location that can be accessed through a dark channel, the external auditory canal; it can be sampled through a tympanic membrane of approximately 100 microns in thickness. The tympanic membrane is the only membrane in the body that is surrounded by air on both sides, under normal conditions. Despite these favorable characteristics, current examination modalities for middle-ear space utilize century-old technology such as white-light otoscopy. This paper reviews existing label-free imaging technologies and their current progress in visualizing middle-ear diseases. We discuss potential opportunities, barriers, and practical considerations when transitioning label-free technology to clinical applications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bioengineering11020104","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,23]],"date-time":"2024-01-23T07:22:32Z","timestamp":1705994552000},"page":"104","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Label-Free Optical Technologies for Middle-Ear Diseases"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7548-9512","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zeyi","family":"Zhou","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Medicine, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA 94305, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Rishikesh","family":"Pandey","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Tulio A.","family":"Valdez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Otolaryngology, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA 94304, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1109\/RBME.2013.2240294","article-title":"Fluorescence Imaging in Surgery","volume":"6","author":"Orosco","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Rev. 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