{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,4]],"date-time":"2026-08-04T01:21:13Z","timestamp":1785806473785,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":98,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,11]],"date-time":"2024-03-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1710115200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Bioengineering"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Fuchs endothelial corneal dystrophy (FECD) is a complex genetic disorder characterized by the slow and progressive degeneration of corneal endothelial cells. Thus, it may result in corneal endothelial decompensation and irreversible corneal edema. Moreover, FECD is associated with alterations in all corneal layers, such as thickening of the Descemet membrane, stromal scarring, subepithelial fibrosis, and the formation of epithelial bullae. Hence, anterior segment imaging devices that enable precise measurement of functional and anatomical changes in the cornea are essential for the management of FECD. In this review, the authors will introduce studies on the application of various imaging modalities, such as anterior segment optical coherence tomography, Scheimpflug corneal tomography, specular microscopy, in vitro confocal microscopy, and retroillumination photography, in the diagnosis and monitoring of FECD and discuss the results of these studies. The application of novel technologies, including image processing technology and artificial intelligence, that are expected to further enhance the accuracy, precision, and speed of the imaging technologies will also be discussed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bioengineering11030271","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,11]],"date-time":"2024-03-11T08:56:41Z","timestamp":1710147401000},"page":"271","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Applications of Imaging Technologies in Fuchs Endothelial Corneal Dystrophy: A Narrative Literature Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4757-1575","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sang Beom","family":"Han","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Saevit Eye Hospital, Goyang 10447, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5408-0382","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yu-Chi","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Singapore National Eye Centre, Singapore 168751, Singapore"},{"name":"Singapore Eye Research Institute, Singapore 168751, Singapore"},{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore 119228, Singapore"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chang","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Singapore Eye Research Institute, Singapore 168751, Singapore"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6362-4898","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jodhbir S.","family":"Mehta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Singapore National Eye Centre, Singapore 168751, Singapore"},{"name":"Singapore Eye Research Institute, Singapore 168751, Singapore"},{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore 119228, Singapore"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1016\/j.survophthal.2017.07.004","article-title":"A review of the evidence for in vivo corneal endothelial regeneration","volume":"63","author":"Dhubhghaill","year":"2018","journal-title":"Surv. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1155","DOI":"10.1016\/0002-9394(67)93073-5","article-title":"Central cornea guttata. Incidence in the general population","volume":"64","author":"Lorenzetti","year":"1967","journal-title":"Am. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3091695","DOI":"10.1155\/2022\/3091695","article-title":"Global Prevalence of Fuchs Endothelial Corneal Dystrophy (FECD) in Adult Population: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"2022","author":"Aiello","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.3109\/08820538.2013.825283","article-title":"Fuchs endothelial cornea dystrophy: A review of the genetics behind disease development","volume":"28","author":"Hamill","year":"2013","journal-title":"Semin. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1007\/s10792-024-02994-1","article-title":"Fuchs endothelial corneal dystrophy: An updated review","volume":"44","author":"Altamirano","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"505","DOI":"10.4103\/ijo.IJO_1288_22","article-title":"Demographic profile and clinical characteristics of Fuchs\u2019 endothelial corneal dystrophy in a tertiary eye care center","volume":"71","author":"Bhadra","year":"2023","journal-title":"Indian J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1097\/ICO.0000000000002796","article-title":"Descemet Stripping Only for Fuchs Endothelial Corneal Dystrophy: Will It Become the Gold Standard?","volume":"41","author":"Colby","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cornea"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, J.-X., Chiang, T.-L., Hung, K.-F., and Sun, Y.-C. (2024). Therapeutic future of Fuchs endothelial corneal dystrophy: An ongoing way to explore. Taiwan J. Ophthalmol.","DOI":"10.4103\/tjo.TJO-D-23-00115"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.1097\/ICO.0000000000003098","article-title":"Acceleration of Regeneration of the Corneal Endothelial Layer After Descemet Stripping Induced by the Engineered FGF TTHX1114 in Human Corneas in Organ Culture","volume":"42","author":"Pizzuto","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cornea"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1016\/0039-6257(93)90099-S","article-title":"Fuchs\u2019 endothelial dystrophy of the cornea","volume":"38","author":"Adamis","year":"1993","journal-title":"Surv. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1001\/archopht.1981.03930010082007","article-title":"Endothelial mosaic in Fuchs\u2019 dystrophy. A qualitative evaluation with the specular microscope","volume":"99","author":"Laing","year":"1981","journal-title":"Arch. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1038\/s41433-019-0497-9","article-title":"Fuchs endothelial corneal dystrophy and corneal endothelial diseases: East meets West","volume":"34","author":"Soh","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eye"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e001103","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjophth-2022-001103","article-title":"Fuchs endothelial corneal dystrophy: Current perspectives on diagnostic pathology and genetics-Bowman Club Lecture","volume":"7","author":"Thaung","year":"2022","journal-title":"BMJ Open Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1136\/bjophthalmol-2017-310759","article-title":"Advances in dry eye imaging: The present and beyond","volume":"102","author":"Chan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Br. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"340","DOI":"10.1080\/08820538.2019.1632355","article-title":"Imaging the Corneal Endothelium in Fuchs Corneal Endothelial Dystrophy","volume":"34","author":"Jurkunas","year":"2019","journal-title":"Semin. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1369","DOI":"10.1097\/ICO.0b013e31820d86bd","article-title":"Optical coherence tomography, Scheimpflug imaging, and slit-lamp biomicroscopy in the early detection of graft detachment after Descemet membrane endothelial keratoplasty","volume":"30","author":"Moutsouris","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cornea"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4971572","DOI":"10.1155\/2016\/4971572","article-title":"Applications of Anterior Segment Optical Coherence Tomography in Cornea and Ocular Surface Diseases","volume":"2016","author":"Han","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1170","DOI":"10.1097\/ICO.0000000000000514","article-title":"Anterior Segment Optical Coherence Tomography-Guided Management Algorithm for Descemet Membrane Detachment After Intraocular Surgery","volume":"34","author":"Sharma","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cornea"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"723","DOI":"10.1177\/112067210901900506","article-title":"Usefulness of anterior segment optical coherence tomography in Descemet membrane detachment","volume":"19","author":"Wylegala","year":"2009","journal-title":"Eur. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"1","article-title":"Diagnosis of Donor Graft Partial Dislocation Behind the Iris After DSAEK with Anterior Segment OCT","volume":"41","author":"Kymionis","year":"2010","journal-title":"Ophthalmic Surg. Lasers Imaging Off. J. Int. Soc. Imaging Eye"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"240","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2012.08.011","article-title":"Predictive value of optical coherence tomography in graft attachment after Descemet\u2019s membrane endothelial keratoplasty","volume":"120","author":"Yeh","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1378","DOI":"10.1097\/ICO.0000000000002925","article-title":"Scheimpflug Versus Optical Coherence Tomography to Detect Subclinical Corneal Edema in Fuchs Endothelial Corneal Dystrophy","volume":"41","author":"Augustin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cornea"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"849","DOI":"10.1080\/02713683.2019.1600194","article-title":"Correlation between Guttata Severity and Thickness of Descemet\u2019s Membrane and the Central Cornea","volume":"44","author":"Huang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e914","DOI":"10.1111\/aos.14690","article-title":"New severity grading system for Fuchs endothelial corneal dystrophy using anterior segment optical coherence tomography","volume":"99","author":"Yasukura","year":"2021","journal-title":"Acta Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1771","DOI":"10.1177\/1120672120944796","article-title":"Corneal optical density in Fuchs endothelial dystrophy determined by anterior segment optical coherence tomography","volume":"31","author":"Wertheimer","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nowi\u0144ska, A., Chlasta-Twardzik, E., Dembski, M., Ulfik-Dembska, K., and Wyl\u0119ga\u0142a, E. (2021). Corneal Analysis with Swept Source Optical Coherence Tomography in Patients with Coexisting Cataract and Fuchs Endothelial Corneal Dystrophy. Diagnostics, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics11020223"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"727","DOI":"10.1097\/ICO.0000000000001530","article-title":"Accuracy of Corneal Thickness by Swept-Source Optical Coherence Tomography and Scheimpflug Camera in Virgin and Treated Fuchs Endothelial Dystrophy","volume":"37","author":"Auladell","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cornea"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1220","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2009.10.027","article-title":"Use of ultra-high-resolution optical coherence tomography to detect in vivo characteristics of Descemet\u2019s membrane in Fuchs\u2019 dystrophy","volume":"117","author":"Shousha","year":"2010","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1221","DOI":"10.1364\/BOE.8.001221","article-title":"Ultrahigh-resolution OCT imaging of the human cornea","volume":"8","author":"Werkmeister","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biomed. Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Iovino, C., Fossarello, M., Giannaccare, G., Pellegrini, M., Braghiroli, M., Demarinis, G., and Napoli, P.E. (2018). Corneal endothelium features in Fuchs\u2019 Endothelial Corneal Dystrophy: A preliminary 3D anterior segment optical coherence tomography study. PLoS ONE, 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0207891"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"874","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2020.01.021","article-title":"Diagnostic Performance of 3-Dimensional Thickness of the Endothelium-Descemet Complex in Fuchs\u2019 Endothelial Cell Corneal Dystrophy","volume":"127","author":"Eleiwa","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1186\/s40662-020-00209-z","article-title":"Automated diagnosis and staging of Fuchs\u2019 endothelial cell corneal dystrophy using deep learning","volume":"7","author":"Eleiwa","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eye Vis."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1167\/tvst.11.12.19","article-title":"Deep Learning Model for the Detection of Corneal Edema Before Descemet Membrane Endothelial Keratoplasty on Optical Coherence Tomography Images","volume":"11","author":"Bitton","year":"2022","journal-title":"Transl. Vis. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1097\/ICO.0000000000001776","article-title":"Using Deep Learning in Automated Detection of Graft Detachment in Descemet Membrane Endothelial Keratoplasty: A Pilot Study","volume":"38","author":"Treder","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cornea"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1016\/j.preteyeres.2018.04.002","article-title":"Anterior segment optical coherence tomography","volume":"66","author":"Ang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Prog. Retin. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1505","DOI":"10.1097\/ICO.0000000000002738","article-title":"Imaging Fuchs Endothelial Corneal Dystrophy in Clinical Practice and Clinical Trials","volume":"40","author":"Patel","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cornea"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1645","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2015.05.005","article-title":"Corneal High-Order Aberrations and Backscatter in Fuchs\u2019 Endothelial Corneal Dystrophy","volume":"122","author":"Wacker","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5904","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.15-17311","article-title":"Directional Posterior Corneal Profile Changes in Fuchs\u2019 Endothelial Corneal Dystrophy","volume":"56","author":"Wacker","year":"2015","journal-title":"Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8747013","DOI":"10.1155\/2017\/8747013","article-title":"Corneal Backscatters as an Objective Index for Assessing Fuchs\u2019 Endothelial Corneal Dystrophy: A Pilot Study","volume":"2017","author":"Chu","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajo.2020.02.004","article-title":"Repeatability of Scheimpflug Tomography for Assessing Fuchs Endothelial Corneal Dystrophy","volume":"215","author":"Patel","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2018.07.005","article-title":"Determining Subclinical Edema in Fuchs Endothelial Corneal Dystrophy: Revised Classification using Scheimpflug Tomography for Preoperative Assessment","volume":"126","author":"Sun","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2019.09.033","article-title":"Predicting the Prognosis of Fuchs Endothelial Corneal Dystrophy by Using Scheimpflug Tomography","volume":"127","author":"Patel","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"987","DOI":"10.1097\/ICO.0000000000001634","article-title":"Repeatability and Intersession Reproducibility of Pentacam Corneal Thickness Maps in Fuchs Dystrophy and Endothelial Keratoplasty","volume":"37","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cornea"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaophthalmol.2020.6994","article-title":"Predicting Edema Resolution After Descemet Membrane Endothelial Keratoplasty for Fuchs Dystrophy Using Scheimpflug Tomography","volume":"139","author":"Zander","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1184","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.13-13041","article-title":"Objective assessment of the corneal endothelium in Fuchs\u2019 endothelial dystrophy","volume":"55","author":"McLaren","year":"2014","journal-title":"Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S55","DOI":"10.1097\/ICO.0000000000000994","article-title":"Evaluation of Visual Quality in Patients With Fuchs Endothelial Corneal Dystrophy","volume":"35","author":"Oie","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cornea"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2103","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2015.06.019","article-title":"Relationship between Corneal Guttae and Quality of Vision in Patients with Mild Fuchs\u2019 Endothelial Corneal Dystrophy","volume":"122","author":"Watanabe","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5090","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.14-14249","article-title":"Quantitative regional differences in corneal endothelial abnormalities in the central and peripheral zones in Fuchs\u2019 endothelial corneal dystrophy","volume":"55","author":"Fujimoto","year":"2014","journal-title":"Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"655","DOI":"10.1136\/bjophthalmol-2016-308893","article-title":"Panoramic view of human corneal endothelial cell layer observed by a prototype slit-scanning wide-field contact specular microscope","volume":"101","author":"Tanaka","year":"2017","journal-title":"Br. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1137","DOI":"10.1097\/ICO.0000000000001976","article-title":"Central and Peripheral Corneal Endothelial Cell Analysis With Slit-Scanning Wide-Field Contact Specular Microscopy: Agreement with Noncontact Specular Microscopy","volume":"38","author":"Lee","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cornea"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1229","DOI":"10.1080\/09500340.2016.1267815","article-title":"Smartphone-based imaging of the corneal endothelium at sub-cellular resolution","volume":"64","author":"Toslak","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Mod. Opt."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1167\/tvst.10.4.4","article-title":"Low-Cost, Smartphone-Based Specular Imaging and Automated Analysis of the Corneal Endothelium","volume":"10","author":"Mantena","year":"2021","journal-title":"Transl. Vis. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"014503","DOI":"10.1117\/1.JMI.7.1.014503","article-title":"Quantitative and qualitative evaluation of deep learning automatic segmentations of corneal endothelial cell images of reduced image quality obtained following cornea transplant","volume":"7","author":"Joseph","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Med. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_54","first-page":"1126","article-title":"Machine learning for segmenting cells in corneal endothelium images","volume":"10950","author":"Kolluru","year":"2019","journal-title":"Proc. SPIE Int. Soc. Opt. Eng."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2278","DOI":"10.1109\/TMI.2018.2841910","article-title":"Corneal Endothelial Cell Segmentation by Classifier-Driven Merging of Oversegmented Images","volume":"37","author":"Andrinopoulou","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Med. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vigueras-Guillen, J.P., van Rooij, J., Lemij, H.G., Vermeer, K.A., and van Vliet, L.J. (2019, January 23\u201327). Convolutional neural network-based regression for biomarker estimation in corneal endothelium microscopy images. Proceedings of the 2019 41st Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC), Berlin, Germany.","DOI":"10.1109\/EMBC.2019.8857201"},{"key":"ref_57","first-page":"1407","article-title":"Automated Cell Counting Using \u201cDeep Learning\u201d in Donor Corneas from Organ Culture Achieves High Precision and Accuracy","volume":"236","author":"Heinzelmann","year":"2019","journal-title":"Klin. Monatsblatter Fur Augenheilkd."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1222","DOI":"10.1097\/ICO.0000000000000908","article-title":"Development of a Reliable Automated Algorithm for the Morphometric Analysis of Human Corneal Endothelium","volume":"35","author":"Scarpa","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cornea"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4752","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-41034-2","article-title":"Automated segmentation of the corneal endothelium in a large set of \u2018real-world\u2019 specular microscopy images using the U-Net architecture","volume":"9","author":"Daniel","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vigueras-Guill\u00e9n, J.P., Sari, B., Goes, S.F., Lemij, H.G., van Rooij, J., Vermeer, K.A., and van Vliet, L.J. (2019). Fully convolutional architecture vs sliding-window CNN for corneal endothelium cell segmentation. BMC Biomed. Eng., 1.","DOI":"10.1186\/s42490-019-0003-2"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1167\/tvst.9.2.49","article-title":"Deep Learning for Assessing the Corneal Endothelium from Specular Microscopy Images up to 1 Year after Ultrathin-DSAEK Surgery","volume":"9","author":"Engel","year":"2020","journal-title":"Transl. Vis. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"901","DOI":"10.1097\/ICO.0000000000002956","article-title":"U-Net Convolutional Neural Network for Segmenting the Corneal Endothelium in a Mouse Model of Fuchs Endothelial Corneal Dystrophy","volume":"41","author":"Okumura","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cornea"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1167\/tvst.10.13.27","article-title":"Automated Image Segmentation of the Corneal Endothelium in Patients With Fuchs Dystrophy","volume":"10","author":"Shilpashree","year":"2021","journal-title":"Transl. Vis. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14035","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-18180-1","article-title":"DenseUNets with feedback non-local attention for the segmentation of specular microscopy images of the corneal endothelium with guttae","volume":"12","author":"Lemij","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1016\/j.preteyeres.2009.11.001","article-title":"Clinical in vivo confocal microscopy of the human cornea in health and disease","volume":"29","author":"Niederer","year":"2010","journal-title":"Prog. Retin. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"493","DOI":"10.1097\/00003226-199809000-00006","article-title":"In vivo confocal microscopy of Fuchs\u2019 endothelial dystrophy","volume":"17","author":"Mustonen","year":"1998","journal-title":"Cornea"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"512","DOI":"10.1097\/00003226-200308000-00005","article-title":"Comparison of confocal biomicroscopy and noncontact specular microscopy for evaluation of the corneal endothelium","volume":"22","author":"Hara","year":"2003","journal-title":"Cornea"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1442-9071.2001.00393.x","article-title":"Differential diagnosis of corneal oedema assisted by in vivo confocal microscopy","volume":"29","author":"Grupcheva","year":"2001","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3509064","DOI":"10.1155\/2020\/3509064","article-title":"Objective Imaging Diagnostics for Dry Eye Disease","volume":"2020","author":"Han","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"652","DOI":"10.1016\/S0002-9394(14)73217-9","article-title":"Diagnosis of advanced Fuchs\u2019 endothelial dystrophy with the confocal microscope","volume":"116","author":"Kaufman","year":"1993","journal-title":"Am. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2325","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2014.07.001","article-title":"Corneal abnormalities early in the course of Fuchs\u2019 endothelial dystrophy","volume":"121","author":"Amin","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1038\/eye.2012.220","article-title":"Cellular and subbasal nerve alterations in early stage Fuchs\u2019 endothelial corneal dystrophy: An in vivo confocal microscopy study","volume":"27","author":"Schrems","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eye"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1159\/000068562","article-title":"Comparison of endothelial cell count using confocal and contact specular microscopy","volume":"217","author":"Klais","year":"2003","journal-title":"Ophthalmologica"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"754","DOI":"10.1097\/ICO.0b013e3182000c5d","article-title":"Comparison between laser scanning in vivo confocal microscopy and noncontact specular microscopy in assessing corneal endothelial cell density and central corneal thickness","volume":"30","author":"Salvetat","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cornea"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"980","DOI":"10.1097\/01.ico.0000159737.68048.97","article-title":"Comparison of corneal endothelial cell images from a noncontact specular microscope and a scanning confocal microscope","volume":"24","author":"Kitzmann","year":"2005","journal-title":"Cornea"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"570","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcjo.2018.12.009","article-title":"Regional variability in corneal endothelial cell density between guttae and non-guttae areas in Fuchs endothelial corneal dystrophy","volume":"54","author":"Bruha","year":"2019","journal-title":"Can. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S144","DOI":"10.1097\/ICL.0000000000000362","article-title":"Comparison of Noncontact Specular and Confocal Microscopy for Evaluation of Corneal Endothelium","volume":"44","author":"Huang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eye Contact Lens"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1166","DOI":"10.1097\/ICO.0000000000001292","article-title":"Peripheral Endothelial Cell Count Is a Predictor of Disease Severity in Advanced Fuchs Endothelial Corneal Dystrophy","volume":"36","author":"Syed","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cornea"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"868","DOI":"10.1001\/archophthalmol.2012.73","article-title":"Corneal haze determined by confocal microscopy 2 years after Descemet stripping with endothelial keratoplasty for Fuchs corneal dystrophy","volume":"130","author":"Baratz","year":"2012","journal-title":"Arch. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"611","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaophthalmol.2013.799","article-title":"In vivo confocal microscopy of Fuchs endothelial dystrophy before and after endothelial keratoplasty","volume":"131","author":"Patel","year":"2013","journal-title":"JAMA Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"866","DOI":"10.1177\/11206721211009451","article-title":"To compare corneal confocal microscopy of eyes with Fuchs\u2019 endothelial corneal dystrophy after two different endothelial surgeries","volume":"32","author":"Abicca","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eur. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajo.2018.08.040","article-title":"In Vivo Confocal Microscopy Shows Alterations in Nerve Density and Dendritiform Cell Density in Fuchs\u2019 Endothelial Corneal Dystrophy","volume":"196","author":"Aggarwal","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1119","DOI":"10.1007\/s00417-014-2678-3","article-title":"Corneal nerve alterations in different stages of Fuchs\u2019 endothelial corneal dystrophy: An in vivo confocal microscopy study","volume":"252","author":"Bucher","year":"2014","journal-title":"Graefe\u2019s Arch. Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1730","DOI":"10.4103\/ijo.IJO_2992_20","article-title":"The relationship between corneal subbasal nerve density and corneal sensitivity in patients with Fuchs endothelial corneal dystrophy","volume":"69","author":"Dikmetas","year":"2021","journal-title":"Indian J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100214","DOI":"10.1016\/j.xops.2022.100214","article-title":"Loss of Corneal Nerves and Corneal Haze in Patients with Fuchs\u2019 Endothelial Corneal Dystrophy with the Transcription Factor 4 Gene Trinucleotide Repeat Expansion","volume":"3","author":"Gillings","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ophthalmol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1257","DOI":"10.1097\/ICO.0b013e31823f7888","article-title":"Decreased corneal sensitivity and abnormal corneal nerves in Fuchs endothelial dystrophy","volume":"31","author":"Ahuja","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cornea"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5098272","DOI":"10.1155\/2021\/5098272","article-title":"Corneal Subbasal Plexus in Eyes with Fuchs\u2019 Endothelial Corneal Dystrophy after Two Different Endothelial Surgeries","volume":"2021","author":"Abicca","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmpb.2018.03.015","article-title":"A fully automated cell segmentation and morphometric parameter system for quantifying corneal endothelial cell morphology","volume":"160","author":"Qahwaji","year":"2018","journal-title":"Comput. Methods Programs Biomed."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajo.2022.02.026","article-title":"A Fully Automated Segmentation and Morphometric Parameter Estimation System for Assessing Corneal Endothelial Cell Images","volume":"239","author":"Qu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Am. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"695","DOI":"10.1038\/s41433-019-0351-0","article-title":"Imaging of meibomian glands: From bench to bedside and back","volume":"33","author":"Villani","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eye"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"306","DOI":"10.1038\/s41597-021-01087-3","article-title":"Wide-field mosaics of the corneal subbasal nerve plexus in Parkinson\u2019s disease using in vivo confocal microscopy","volume":"8","author":"Badian","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Data"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"908","DOI":"10.2337\/db22-0863","article-title":"Comparison of Novel Wide-Field In Vivo Corneal Confocal Microscopy With Skin Biopsy for Assessing Peripheral Neuropathy in Type 2 Diabetes","volume":"72","author":"Badian","year":"2023","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4249","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.18-24497","article-title":"Wide-Field In Vivo Confocal Microscopy of Meibomian Gland Acini and Rete Ridges in the Eyelid Margin","volume":"59","author":"Zhou","year":"2018","journal-title":"Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7468","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-25915-6","article-title":"3D confocal laser-scanning microscopy for large-area imaging of the corneal subbasal nerve plexus","volume":"8","author":"Allgeier","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"485","DOI":"10.1097\/01.ico.0000178726.11693.14","article-title":"Analysis and documentation of progression of Fuchs corneal dystrophy with retroillumination photography","volume":"25","author":"Gottsch","year":"2006","journal-title":"Cornea"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1623","DOI":"10.1097\/ICO.0000000000000656","article-title":"Retroillumination Photography Analysis Enhances Clinical Definition of Severe Fuchs Corneal Dystrophy","volume":"34","author":"Eghrari","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cornea"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1097\/ICO.0000000000001056","article-title":"Automated Retroillumination Photography Analysis for Objective Assessment of Fuchs Corneal Dystrophy","volume":"36","author":"Eghrari","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cornea"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"260","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajo.2020.07.029","article-title":"Automated Clinical Assessment of Corneal Guttae in Fuchs Endothelial Corneal Dystrophy","volume":"221","author":"Soh","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Ophthalmol."}],"container-title":["Bioengineering"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2306-5354\/11\/3\/271\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T14:11:58Z","timestamp":1760105518000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2306-5354\/11\/3\/271"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,11]]},"references-count":98,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,3]]}},"alternative-id":["bioengineering11030271"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/bioengineering11030271","relation":{},"ISSN":["2306-5354"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2306-5354","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,11]]}}}