{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T01:03:25Z","timestamp":1760058205903,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":25,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,24]],"date-time":"2025-03-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1742774400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Bioengineering"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: The identification of the optimal management for blunt splenic trauma\u2014angioembolization (AE), splenectomy, or observation\u2014remains a challenge. This study applies Optimal Policy Trees (OPT), an artificial intelligence (AI) model, to prescribe appropriate management and improve in-hospital mortality. Methods: OPTs were trained on patients with blunt splenic injuries in the ACS-TQIP 2013\u20132019 to prescribe one of the three interventions: splenectomy, angioembolization (AE), or observation. Prescriptive trees were derived in two separate patient cohorts: those who presented with a systolic blood pressure (SBP) &lt; 70 mmHg and those with an SBP \u2265 70 mmHg. Splenic injury severity was graded using the American Association of Surgical Trauma (AAST) grading scale. Counterfactual estimation was used to predict the effects of interventions on overall in-hospital mortality. Results: Among 54,345 patients, 3.1% underwent splenic AE, 13.1% splenectomy, and 83.8% were managed with observation. In patients with SBP &lt; 70 mmHg, AE was recommended for shock index (SI) &lt; 1.5 or without transfusion, while splenectomy was indicated for SI \u2265 1.5 with transfusion. For patients with SBP \u2265 70 mmHg, AE was recommended for AAST grades 4\u20135, or grades 1\u20133 with SI \u2265 1.2; observation was recommended for grades 1\u20133 with SI &lt; 1.2. Predicted mortality using OPT-prescribed treatments was 18.4% for SBP &lt; 70 mmHg and 4.97% for SBP \u2265 70 mmHg, compared to observed rates of 36.46% and 7.60%, respectively. Conclusions: Interpretable AI models may serve as a decision aid to improve mortality in patients presenting with a blunt splenic injury. Our data-driven prescriptive OPT models may aid in prescribing the appropriate management in this patient cohort based on their characteristics.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bioengineering12040336","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,24]],"date-time":"2025-03-24T07:46:50Z","timestamp":1742802410000},"page":"336","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Using Interpretable Artificial Intelligence Algorithms in the Management of Blunt Splenic Trauma: Applications of Optimal Policy Trees as a Treatment Prescription Aid to Improve Patient Mortality"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Vahe S.","family":"Panossian","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Trauma, Emergency Surgery, Surgical Critical Care, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8409-7222","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yu","family":"Ma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Operations Research Center, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1927-746X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bolin","family":"Song","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Operations Research Center, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jefferson A.","family":"Proa\u00f1o-Zamudio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Trauma, Emergency Surgery, Surgical Critical Care, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Veerle P. C.","family":"van Zon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Trauma, Emergency Surgery, Surgical Critical Care, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1131-5505","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ikemsinachi C.","family":"Nzenwa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Trauma, Emergency Surgery, Surgical Critical Care, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5685-6401","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Azadeh","family":"Tabari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"George C.","family":"Velmahos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Trauma, Emergency Surgery, Surgical Critical Care, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Haytham M. A.","family":"Kaafarani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Trauma, Emergency Surgery, Surgical Critical Care, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Dimitris","family":"Bertsimas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Operations Research Center, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA"},{"name":"Sloan School of Management, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2230-7199","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dania","family":"Daye","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Patil, M.S., Goodin, S.Z., and Findeiss, L.K. 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