{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,6]],"date-time":"2026-09-06T11:09:55Z","timestamp":1788692995956,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":85,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,31]],"date-time":"2025-03-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1743379200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Contego Sports Ltd., Ireland"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Bioengineering"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study involved the simulation of five real-world head impact events in rugby, to assess the level of protection provided by a novel foam headguard, the N-Pro. The University College Dublin Brain Trauma Model (UCDBTM) was used to estimate the peak resultant head accelerations and brain tissue responses in different head impact scenarios. The input kinematics were obtained from two sources: video analysis of impact events, and real-time data obtained through instrumented mouthguards. The impact events were simulated under both unprotected and protected conditions. All simulations were performed against a rigid, non-compliant surface model. The results obtained in this study demonstrate the significant potential of the N-Pro in reducing peak head accelerations and brain tissue stress\/strain responses by up to c. 70% compared to unprotected head impacts. This study highlights the headguard\u2019s promising potential to reduce the severity of impact-related injuries by effectively attenuating stresses and strains, as well as linear and rotational kinematics. Additionally, the study supports the recommendation in the literature that kinematic data collected from wearable sensors should be supplemented by video analysis to improve accident reconstructions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bioengineering12040361","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,31]],"date-time":"2025-03-31T08:48:00Z","timestamp":1743410880000},"page":"361","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Computational Modelling of Protected and Unprotected Head Impacts in Rugby"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-5060-7528","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Thea","family":"Hodges","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, University College Dublin, Belfield, D04 V1W8 Dublin, Ireland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-2384-0189","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Adam","family":"Jones","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, University College Dublin, Belfield, D04 V1W8 Dublin, Ireland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Luc\u00eda P\u00e9rez","family":"del Olmo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, University College Dublin, Belfield, D04 V1W8 Dublin, Ireland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ashwin","family":"Mishra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, University College Dublin, Belfield, D04 V1W8 Dublin, Ireland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0290-9587","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Brian","family":"Caulfield","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Public Health, Physiotherapy & Sports Science, University College Dublin, Belfield, D04 V1W8 Dublin, Ireland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0176-6281","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tahar","family":"Kechadi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Computer Science, University College Dublin, Belfield, D04 V1W8 Dublin, Ireland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2959-698X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"David","family":"MacManus","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, University College Dublin, Belfield, D04 V1W8 Dublin, Ireland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1765-429X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michael D.","family":"Gilchrist","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, University College Dublin, Belfield, D04 V1W8 Dublin, Ireland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"BBC Sport (2024, January 01). \u2018I Feel Like a Phoney\u2019\u2014Thompson on Dementia. Available online: https:\/\/www.bbc.com\/sport\/rugby-union\/63131221."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"The Irish Times (2024, January 01). Former Wales Rugby International Dafydd James Reveals Early Onset Dementia Diagnosis. Available online: https:\/\/www.irishtimes.com\/sport\/rugby\/2023\/04\/04\/former-wales-rugby-international-dafydd-james-reveals-early-onset-dementia-diagnosis\/."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Henson, M. (2024, January 01). \u2018Ex-Lions Byrne and Greening Named in Concussion Lawsuit\u2019, BBC Sport. Available online: https:\/\/www.bbc.com\/sport\/rugby-union\/articles\/c2e78zd20nko."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"330","article-title":"Efficacy of rugby headgear in attenuating repetitive linear impact forces","volume":"38","author":"Knouse","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Athl. Train."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"719","DOI":"10.1227\/01.NEU.0000175725.75780.DD","article-title":"Association between recurrent concussion and late-life cognitive impairment in retired professional football players","volume":"57","author":"Guskiewicz","year":"2005","journal-title":"Neurosurgery"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1016\/S0301-0082(02)00018-7","article-title":"The neurophysiology of concussion","volume":"67","author":"Shaw","year":"2002","journal-title":"Prog. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"877","DOI":"10.1136\/bjsports-2016-097393","article-title":"What is the definition of sports-related concussion: A systematic review","volume":"51","author":"McCrory","year":"2017","journal-title":"Br. J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Versace, J. (1971). A Review of the Severity Index, Society of Automotive Engineers. SAE Technical Paper 710881.","DOI":"10.4271\/710881"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1115\/1.1691446","article-title":"A proposed injury threshold for mild traumatic brain injury","volume":"126","author":"Zhang","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Biomech. Eng."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"81","article-title":"Predictors for traumatic brain injuries evaluated through accident reconstructions","volume":"51","author":"Kleiven","year":"2007","journal-title":"Stapp Car Crash J."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kleiven, S. (2013). Why most traumatic brain injuries are not caused by linear acceleration but skull fractures are. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol., 1.","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2013.00015"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Keating, C.E., and Cullen, D.K. (2021). Mechanosensation in traumatic brain injury. Neurobiol. Dis., 148.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nbd.2020.105210"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gennarelli, T., Thibault, L., and Ommaya, A. (1972). Pathophysiologic Responses to Rotational and Translational Accelerations of the Head, Society of Automotive Engineers. SAE Technical Paper 720970.","DOI":"10.4271\/720970"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stemper, B.D. (2022). Sport-Related Concussion: The Role of Repetitive Head Impact Exposure. Cellular, Molecular, Physiological, and Behavioral Aspects of Traumatic Brain Injury, Academic Press. Available online: https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/B9780128230367000232.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-823036-7.00023-2"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mavroudis, I., Kazis, D., Chowdhury, R., Petridis, F., Costa, V., Balmus, I.M., Ciobica, A., Luca, A.C., Radu, I., and Dobrin, R.P. (2022). Post-concussion syndrome and chronic traumatic encephalopathy: Narrative review on the neuropathology, neuroimaging and fluid biomarkers. Diagnostics, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics12030740"},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Kemp, S. (2020). Premiership Rugby. England Professional Rugby Injury Surveillance Project (PRISP): Season Report 2020\u20132021, Irish Rugby Football Union."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Van Dyk, N., McLoughlin, R., Glasgow, P., Liston, M., Yeomans, C., and Whale, A. (2020). Professional Rugby Injury & Illness Surveillance Report (PRIISR): Season 2020\/2021, Irish Rugby Football Union."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"862","DOI":"10.1136\/bjsm.2007.037499","article-title":"Contact events in rugby union and their propensity to cause injury","volume":"41","author":"Fuller","year":"2007","journal-title":"Br. J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Patel, R., Wetzler, A., Bennett, N., and Wetzler, M. (2023). Injuries in rugby union: A review. Injuries and Sports Medicine, IntechOpen.","DOI":"10.5772\/intechopen.107380"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"926","DOI":"10.1136\/bjsports-2015-094982","article-title":"Professional Rugby Union players have a 60% greater risk of time loss injury after concussion: A 2-season prospective study of clinical outcomes","volume":"50","author":"Cross","year":"2016","journal-title":"Br. J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1980","DOI":"10.1097\/00005768-200012000-00002","article-title":"The dynamics of concussive head impacts in rugby and Australian rules football","volume":"32","author":"McIntosh","year":"2000","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Sports Exerc."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1186\/s40798-019-0182-3","article-title":"Verifying head impacts recorded by a wearable sensor using video footage in Rugby League: A preliminary study","volume":"5","author":"Carey","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sports Med. Open"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e000361","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjsem-2018-000361","article-title":"Comparison of branded rugby headguards on their effectiveness in reducing impact on the head","volume":"4","author":"Frizzell","year":"2018","journal-title":"BMJ Open Sport Exerc. Med."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5567625","DOI":"10.1155\/2021\/5567625","article-title":"Potential of soft-shelled rugby headgear to reduce linear impact accelerations","volume":"2021","author":"Draper","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Healthc. Eng."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1546","DOI":"10.1007\/s10439-022-02912-5","article-title":"Potential of soft-shell rugby headgear to mitigate linear and rotational peak accelerations","volume":"50","author":"Stitt","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ann. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e000464","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjsem-2018-000464","article-title":"New generation of headgear for rugby: Impact reduction of linear and rotational forces by a viscoelastic material-based rugby headguard","volume":"4","author":"Ganly","year":"2018","journal-title":"BMJ Open Sport Exerc. Med."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apmr.2020.08.022","article-title":"Expert panel survey to update the American Congress of Rehabilitation Medicine definition of Mild Traumatic Brain Injury","volume":"102","author":"Silverberg","year":"2021","journal-title":"Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"695","DOI":"10.1136\/bjsports-2023-106898","article-title":"Consensus statement on concussion in sport: The 6th international conference on concussion in sport, Amsterdam, October 2022","volume":"57","author":"Patricios","year":"2023","journal-title":"Br. J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1089\/neu.2019.6483","article-title":"Dynamic blood-brain barrier regulation in mild traumatic brain injury","volume":"37","author":"Kelly","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Neurotrauma"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"fcz021","DOI":"10.1093\/braincomms\/fcz021","article-title":"Novel strain analysis informs about injury susceptibility of the corpus callosum to repeated impacts","volume":"1","author":"Champagne","year":"2019","journal-title":"Brain Commun."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1642","DOI":"10.3171\/2017.12.JNS172386","article-title":"Elevated markers of brain injury as a result of clinically asymptomatic high-acceleration head impacts in high-school football athletes","volume":"130","author":"Joseph","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1130","DOI":"10.1089\/neu.2022.0300","article-title":"Association between serum neurofilament light and glial fibrillary acidic protein levels and head impact burden in women\u2019s collegiate water polo","volume":"40","author":"Huibregtse","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Neurotrauma"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaophthalmol.2018.6193","article-title":"Oculomotor response to cumulative sub-concussive head impacts in US high school football players: A pilot longitudinal study","volume":"137","author":"Zonner","year":"2019","journal-title":"JAMA Opthalmol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"390","DOI":"10.1249\/MSS.0b013e318186b1c5","article-title":"Numerical reconstruction of real-life concussive football impacts","volume":"41","author":"McIntosh","year":"2009","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Sports Exerc."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"721","DOI":"10.1123\/jab.29.6.721","article-title":"The biomechanical determinants of concussion: Finite element simulations to investigate brain tissue deformations during sporting impacts to the unprotected head","volume":"29","author":"Patton","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Appl. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.1123\/jab.2014-0223","article-title":"The biomechanical determinants of concussion: Finite element simulations to investigate tissue-level predictors of injury during sporting impacts to the unprotected head","volume":"31","author":"Patton","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Appl. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsams.2019.10.006","article-title":"Proposed injury thresholds for concussion in equestrian sports","volume":"23","author":"Clark","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Sci. Med. Sport"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1533\/ijcr.2003.0243","article-title":"The creation of three-dimensional finite element models for simulating head impact biomechanics","volume":"8","author":"Horgan","year":"2003","journal-title":"Int. J. Crashworthiness"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, B., Tse, K.M., Chen, N., Tan, L.B., Zheng, Q.Q., Yang, H.M., Hu, M., Pan, G., and Lee, H.P. (2014). Development of a finite element head model for the study of impact head injury. BioMed Res. Int., 2014.","DOI":"10.1155\/2014\/408278"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105448","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijmecsci.2020.105448","article-title":"Biofidelic finite element modelling of brain trauma: Importance of the scalp in simulating head impact","volume":"173","author":"Trotta","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Mech. Sci."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"986","DOI":"10.1007\/s10439-018-2017-7","article-title":"Comparison of ice hockey goaltender helmets for concussion type impacts","volume":"46","author":"Clark","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ann. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Clark, J.M. (2019). In-Depth Analysis and Reconstruction of Equestrian Jockey Accidents and their Helmets. [Ph.D. Thesis, University College Dublin]."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"266","article-title":"Comparison of dynamic response and maximum principal strain of diagnosed concussion in professional men\u2019s rugby leave","volume":"236","author":"Ignacy","year":"2022","journal-title":"Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. (P) J. Sports Eng. Technol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1021","DOI":"10.1080\/10255842.2010.504922","article-title":"Finite element modelling of equestrian helmet impacts exposes the need to address rotational kinematics in future helmet designs","volume":"14","author":"Cui","year":"2011","journal-title":"Comput. Methods Biomech. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hassan, M.H.A. (2022). The influence of ball impact angle on the brain deformation in soccer heading: A finite element analysis. Human-Centred Technology for a Better Tomorrow. Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-16-4115-2_25"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"DiMasi, F.P., Eppinger, R.H., and Bandak, F.A. (1995). Computational Analysis of Head Impact Response Under Car Crash Loadings, Society for Automotive Engineers. SAE Technical Paper 952718.","DOI":"10.4271\/952718"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Duckworth, H., Azor, A., Wischmann, N., Zimmerman, K.A., Tanini, I., Sharp, D.J., and Ghajari, M. (2022). A Finite element model of cerebral vascular injury for predicting microbleed locations. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2022.860112"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1007\/s10237-018-1074-z","article-title":"Fluid-structure interaction simulation of the brain-skull interface for acute subdural haematoma prediction","volume":"18","author":"Zhou","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biomech. Model. Mechanobiol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, L., Yang, K.H., Dwarampudi, R., Omori, K., Li, T., Chang, K., Hardy, W.N., Khalil, T.B., and King, A.I. (2001). Recent Advances in Brain Injury Research: A New Human Head Model Development and Validation, Society for Automotive Engineers. SAE Technical Paper 2001-22-0017.","DOI":"10.4271\/2001-22-0017"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/aww317","article-title":"Computational modelling of traumatic brain injury predicts the location of chronic traumatic encephalopathy pathology","volume":"140","author":"Ghajari","year":"2017","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012097","DOI":"10.1088\/1757-899X\/342\/1\/012097","article-title":"Biomechanical analysis using Kinovea for sports application","volume":"Volume 342","author":"Lee","year":"2018","journal-title":"IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Garc\u00eda, T.C.G., Parada, M.F.B., and Leiva, K.M.R. (2024). Biomechanical analysis of functional movement in athletes using Kinovea. Advances in Digital Health and Medical Bioengineering, Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on E-Health and Bioengineering, EHB-2023, Bucharest, Romania, 9\u201310 November 2023, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-62523-7_52"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1007\/s12283-018-0263-4","article-title":"Analysis of speed accuracy using video analysis software","volume":"21","author":"Post","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sports Eng."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Caseiro-Filho, L.C., Girasol, C.E., Rinaldi, M.L., Lemos, T.W., and Guirro, R.R.J. (2023). Analysis of the accuracy and reliability of vertical jump evaluation using a low-cost acquisition system. BMC Sports Sci. Med. Rehabil., 15.","DOI":"10.1186\/s13102-023-00718-z"},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"Rotundo, M., Murray, N., Allan, D., and Tierney, G. (2025). Instrumented mouthguards in elite sports: Validity and head acceleration event (HAE) incidence in NCAA American football. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1327","DOI":"10.1007\/s40279-023-01953-7","article-title":"Instrumented mouthguards in elite-level men\u2019s and women\u2019s rugby union: The incidence and propensity of head acceleration in matches","volume":"54","author":"Tooby","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"Luke, D. (2023). On-Field Assessment and Application of Instrumented Mouthguards in Measuring Head Impact and Concussion Biomechanics. [Master\u2019s Thesis, University of British Columbia]."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"584","DOI":"10.1093\/milmed\/usad249","article-title":"Measurement of head kinematics using instrumented mouthguards during introductory boxing courses in US military academy cadets","volume":"188","author":"Fetchko","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mil. Med."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1389","DOI":"10.1007\/s10439-022-02999-w","article-title":"Use of brain biomechanical models for monitoring impact exposure in contact sports","volume":"50","author":"Ji","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ann. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1389","DOI":"10.1007\/s10439-024-03586-x","article-title":"Accuracy of instrumented mouthguards during direct jaw impacts seen in boxing","volume":"52","author":"Venkatraman","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ann. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1171","DOI":"10.1136\/bjsports-2022-105523","article-title":"Ready for impact? A validity and feasibility study of instrumented mouthguards (iMGs)","volume":"56","author":"Jones","year":"2022","journal-title":"Br. J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2580","DOI":"10.1007\/s10439-020-02629-3","article-title":"Validation and comparison of instrumented mouthguards for measuring head kinematics and assessing brain deformation in football impacts","volume":"48","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ann. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"(2024, January 01). Prevent Biometrics. Available online: https:\/\/preventbiometrics.com\/."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.1533\/ijcr.2004.0299","article-title":"Influence of FE model variability in predicting brain motion and intracranial pressure changes in head impact simulations","volume":"9","author":"Horgan","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. J. Crashworthiness"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nahum, A.M., Smith, R.W., and Ward, C. (1977). Intracranial Pressure Dynamics During Head Impact, Society for Automotive Engineers. SAE Technical Paper (1977): 770922.","DOI":"10.4271\/770922"},{"key":"ref_66","first-page":"337","article-title":"Investigation of head injury mechanisms using Neutral Density Technology and high-speed biplanar X-ray","volume":"45","author":"Hardy","year":"2001","journal-title":"Stapp Car Crash J."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Trosseille, X., Tarri\u00e9re, C., Lavaste, F., Guillon, F., and Domont, A. (1992). Development of a F.E.M. of the Human Head According to a Specific Test Protocol, Society for Automotive Engineers. Proceedings of the 36th Stapp Car Crash Conference; SAE Technical Paper (1002): 922527.","DOI":"10.4271\/922527"},{"key":"ref_68","unstructured":"(2024, January 01). World Rugby Law 4 Headgear Trial. Available online: https:\/\/www.world.rugby\/the-game\/facilities-equipment\/equipment\/law-4-headgear-trial."},{"key":"ref_69","unstructured":"(2024, January 01). World Rugby Handbook. Available online: https:\/\/www.world.rugby\/wr-resources\/World_Rugby_Handbook\/EN\/pubData\/source\/150114%20GF%20IRB%20Handbook%20Master%20English%20Version.pdf."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104100","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijimpeng.2021.104100","article-title":"Density, strain rate and strain effects on mechanical property evolution in polymeric foams","volume":"161","author":"Bhagavathula","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Impact Eng."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"196","DOI":"10.1136\/bjsm.2005.018614","article-title":"Summary and agreement statement of the 2nd international conference on concussion in sport, Prague 2004","volume":"39","author":"McCrory","year":"2005","journal-title":"Br. J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bartsch, A., Samorezov, S., Benzel, E., Miele, V., and Brett, D. (2014). Validation of an \u201cIntelligent Mouthguard\u201d Single Event Head Impact Dosimeter, Society for Automotive Engineers. SAE Technical Paper 2014-22-0001.","DOI":"10.4271\/2014-22-0001"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awaa336","article-title":"From biomechanics to pathology: Predicting axonal injury from patterns of strain after traumatic brain injury","volume":"144","author":"Donat","year":"2021","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-015-0445-y","article-title":"Thalamic inflammation after brain trauma is associated with thalamocortical white matter damage","volume":"12","author":"Scott","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zimmerman, K.A., Kim, J., Karton, C., Lochhead, L., Sharp, D.J., Hoshizaki, T., and Ghajari, M. (2021). Player position in American football influences the magnitude of mechanical strains produced in the location of chronic traumatic encephalopathy pathology: A computational modelling study. J. Biomech., 118.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2021.110256"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rowson, B., and Duma, S.M. (2022). A review of head injury metrics used in automotive safety and sports protective equipment. ASME J. BioMech. Eng., 144.","DOI":"10.1115\/1.4054379"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100059","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brain.2022.100059","article-title":"Material properties of human brain tissue suitable for modelling traumatic brain injury","volume":"3","author":"MacManus","year":"2022","journal-title":"Brain Multiphysics"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103355","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijengsci.2020.103355","article-title":"Regional characterization of the dynamic mechanical properties of human brain tissue by microindentation","volume":"155","author":"Menichetti","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Eng. Sci."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, Z., Li, X., and Kleiven, S. (2025). Surface-based versus voxel-based finite element head models: Comparative analyses of strain responses. Biomech. Model. Mechanobiol., 1\u201320.","DOI":"10.1007\/s10237-025-01940-z"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2017.07.013","article-title":"Peak linear and rotational acceleration magnitude and duration effects on maximum principal strain in the corpus callosum for sport impacts","volume":"61","author":"Post","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Biomech."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2316601","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2023.16601","article-title":"Longitudinal associations of clinical and biochemical head injury biomarkers with head impact exposure in adolescent football players","volume":"6","author":"Zuidema","year":"2023","journal-title":"JAMA Netw. Open"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Puig-Divi, A., Escalona-Marfil, C., Padull\u00e9s-Riu, J.M., Busquets, A., Padull\u00e9s-Chando, X., and Marcos-Ruiz, D. (2019). Validity and reliability of the Kinovea program in obtaining angles and distances using coordinates in 4 perspectives. PLoS ONE, 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0216448"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Duckworth, H., Sharp, D.J., and Ghajari, M. (2021). Smoothed particle hydrodynamic modelling of the cerebrospinal fluid for brain biomechanics: Accuracy and stability. Int. J. Numer. Method. Biomed. Eng., 37.","DOI":"10.1002\/cnm.3440"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, Z., Li, X., Domel, A.G., Dennis, E.L., Georgiadis, M., Liu, Y., Raymond, S.J., Grant, G., Kleiven, S., and Camarillo, D. (2022). The presence of the temporal horn exacerbates the vulnerability of hippocampus during head impacts. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol., 22.","DOI":"10.1101\/2021.12.07.471634"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1579","DOI":"10.1007\/s10439-022-02936-x","article-title":"Protective performance of helmets and goggles in mitigating brain biomechanical response to primary blast exposure","volume":"50","author":"Yu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ann. Biomed. Eng."}],"container-title":["Bioengineering"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2306-5354\/12\/4\/361\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T17:06:43Z","timestamp":1760029603000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2306-5354\/12\/4\/361"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,31]]},"references-count":85,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,4]]}},"alternative-id":["bioengineering12040361"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/bioengineering12040361","relation":{},"ISSN":["2306-5354"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2306-5354","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,31]]}}}