{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,24]],"date-time":"2026-06-24T11:39:04Z","timestamp":1782301144541,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,30]],"date-time":"2025-08-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1756512000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"University of Florida Strategic Funding Initiative \u201cTransforming Sport Science for Every Body\u201d"},{"name":"UF Health Sports Performance Center"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Bioengineering"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Biomechanical strategies of running gait were compared among healthy and recently injured pediatric and adult runners (N = 207). Spatiotemporal, kinematic, and kinetic parameters (ground reaction force [GRF], vertical average loading rate [VALR]) and leg stiffness (Kvert) were obtained during running on an instrumented treadmill with simultaneous 3D-motion capture. Significant age X injury interactions existed for cadence, peak GRF, and peak joint angles in stance. Cadence was fastest in healthy adults and 2\u20133% lower in other groups (p = 0.049). Injured adults exhibited higher variance in stance and swing time, whereas injured pediatric runners had lower variance in these measures (p &lt; 0.05). Peak GRF was highest in non-injured adults (2.6\u20132.7 BW) and lowest in injured adults (2.4 BW; p &lt; 0.05). VALRs (BW\/s) were higher among pediatric groups, irrespective of injury (p &lt; 0.05). The interaction for ankle dorsiflexion\/plantarflexion moment was significant (p = 0.05). Healthy pediatric runners produced more plantarflexion than all other groups (p = 0.026). Pelvis rotation was highest in healthy pediatric runners and lowest in healthy adults (17.3\u00b0 versus 12.0\u00b0; p = 0.036). Pediatric runners did not leverage force-dampening strategies, but reduced gait cycle time variance and controlled pelvic rotation. Injured adults had lower GRF and longer stance time, indicating a shift toward force mitigation during stance. Age-specific rehabilitation and gait retraining approaches may be warranted.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bioengineering12090937","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,2]],"date-time":"2025-09-02T16:05:22Z","timestamp":1756829122000},"page":"937","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Comparative Biomechanical Strategies of Running Gait Among Healthy and Recently Injured Pediatric and Adult Runners"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1582-3301","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cole","family":"Verble","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Exercise and Functional Fitness Laboratory, Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-0019-0850","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ryan M.","family":"Nixon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Exercise and Functional Fitness Laboratory, Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-2295-2585","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lydia","family":"Pezzullo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Exercise and Functional Fitness Laboratory, Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Matthew","family":"Martenson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Exercise and Functional Fitness Laboratory, Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kevin R.","family":"Vincent","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Orthopaedic Institute (TOI), Alachua, FL 32615, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2177-1683","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Heather K.","family":"Vincent","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Exercise and Functional Fitness Laboratory, Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"NFHS (2021). National Federation of State High School Associations, High School Athletics Participation Survey."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Running USA (2022). Running USA 2022 Global Runner Survey, Running USA."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"(2024, August 15). Statista Running and Jogging Participation in the U.S. 2010\u20132023. Artic. ID Did-18259-1. Available online: https:\/\/www.statista.com\/study\/18259\/running-and-jogging\/."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0838.2007.00683.x","article-title":"Prevalence and Incidence of Lower Extremity Injuries in Male Marathon Runners","volume":"18","author":"Kolkman","year":"2008","journal-title":"Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sports"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1249\/MSS.0000000000002455","article-title":"Multifactorial Determinants of Running Injury Locations in 550 Injured Recreational Runners","volume":"53","author":"Hollander","year":"2021","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Sports Exerc."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"469","DOI":"10.1136\/bjsm.2006.033548","article-title":"Incidence and Determinants of Lower Extremity Running Injuries in Long Distance Runners: A Systematic Review","volume":"41","author":"Siem","year":"2007","journal-title":"Br. J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gaitpost.2022.05.025","article-title":"Biomechanical Running Gait Assessments across Prevalent Adolescent Musculoskeletal Injuries","volume":"96","author":"Whitney","year":"2022","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McSweeney, S.C., Gr\u00e4vare Silbernagel, K., Gruber, A.H., Heiderscheit, B.C., Krabak, B.J., Rauh, M.J., Tenforde, A.S., Wearing, S.C., Zech, A., and Hollander, K. (2021). Adolescent Running Biomechanics-Implications for Injury Prevention and Rehabilitation. Front. Sports Act. Living, 3.","DOI":"10.3389\/fspor.2021.689846"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gaitpost.2023.05.021","article-title":"Pre-Pubertal Runners Demonstrate Greater Variability in Running Kinematics than Post-Pubertal Runners","volume":"107","author":"Close","year":"2024","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"927","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7793.1998.927bm.x","article-title":"The Mechanics of Running in Children","volume":"509","author":"Schepens","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3224","DOI":"10.1080\/14763141.2023.2218325","article-title":"Preferred Temporal-Spatial Parameters, Physical Maturation, and Sex Are Related to Vertical and Braking Forces in Adolescent Long-Distance Runners","volume":"23","author":"Garcia","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sports Biomech."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Clarke, L. (2022). The Effect of Physical Growth on Gait Stability in Adolescent Athletes, Temple University."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1016\/j.humov.2015.08.005","article-title":"Dynamic Stability during Running Gait Termination: Differences in Strategies between Children and Adults to Control Forward Momentum","volume":"43","author":"Cesar","year":"2015","journal-title":"Hum. Mov. Sci."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cart\u00f3n-Llorente, A., Cardiel-S\u00e1nchez, S., Molina-Molina, A., R\u00e1fales-Perucha, A., and Rubio-Peirot\u00e9n, A. (2024). Bilateral Asymmetry of Spatiotemporal Running Gait Parameters in U14 Athletes at Different Speeds. Sports, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/sports12050117"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"462","DOI":"10.1249\/00005768-199204000-00012","article-title":"Running Economy: Changes with Age during Childhood and Adolescence","volume":"24","author":"Krahenbuhl","year":"1992","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Sports Exerc."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vincent, H.K., Popp, R., Cicilioni, O., Vincent, K.R., Pezzullo, L., Martenson, M., and Nixon, R.M. (2025). Reference Biomechanical Parameters and Natural Asymmetry among Runners across the Age Spectrum without a History of Running-Related Injuries. Front. Sports Act. Living, 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/fspor.2025.1560756"},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"48","article-title":"Adolescent and Young Adult Hip and Knee Strength Profiles Relate to Running Gait Biomechanics","volume":"64","author":"Hunt","year":"2023","journal-title":"Phys. Ther. Sport Off. J. Assoc. Chart. Physiother. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"344","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclinepi.2007.11.008","article-title":"The Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) Statement: Guidelines for Reporting Observational Studies","volume":"61","author":"Altman","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Clin. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"378","DOI":"10.1249\/00005768-199103000-00018","article-title":"Variability in Running Economy and Mechanics among Trained Male Runners","volume":"23","author":"Morgan","year":"1991","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Sports Exerc."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vincent, H.K., and Vincent, K.R. (2020). Evaluation of the Injured Runner. Clinical Care of the Runner: Assessment, Biomechanical Principles, and Injury Management, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-323-67949-7.00003-3"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Madsen, A., Sharififar, S., Oberhaus, J., Vincent, K.R., and Vincent, H.K. (2022). Anxiety State Impact on Recovery of Runners with Lower Extremity Injuries. PLoS ONE, 17.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0278444"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gaitpost.2019.04.022","article-title":"Cadence Impact on Cardiopulmonary, Metabolic and Biomechanical Loading during Downhill Running","volume":"71","author":"Vincent","year":"2019","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1002\/jor.1100080310","article-title":"Measurement of Lower Extremity Kinematics during Level Walking","volume":"8","author":"Kadaba","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Orthop. Res. Off. Publ. Orthop. Res. Soc."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1231","DOI":"10.1016\/0021-9290(96)00021-8","article-title":"Joint Center Longitudinal Positions Computed from a Selected Subset of Chandler\u2019s Data","volume":"29","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, Z., Cui, C., Zhou, Z., Zheng, Z., Yan, S., Liu, H., Qu, F., and Zhang, K. (2024). Effect of Midsole Hardness and Surface Type Cushioning on Landing Impact in Heel-Strike Runners. J. Biomech., 165.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2024.111996"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1106","DOI":"10.1002\/pmrj.12335","article-title":"Impact of Body Mass Index on Biomechanics of Recreational Runners","volume":"12","author":"Vincent","year":"2020","journal-title":"PM R"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gaitpost.2024.06.015","article-title":"Gait Signatures of Endurance Runners with Low Back Pain: A Case Controlled Cross Sectional Study","volume":"113","author":"Drozda","year":"2024","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gaitpost.2018.03.043","article-title":"Is Symmetry of Loading Improved for Injured Runners during Novice Barefoot Running?","volume":"62","author":"Tenforde","year":"2018","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1241","DOI":"10.1249\/MSS.0000000000001560","article-title":"Kinetic Asymmetry during Running at Preferred and Nonpreferred Speeds","volume":"50","author":"Furlong","year":"2018","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Sports Exerc."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"247","article-title":"A General Relationship Links Gait Mechanics and Running Ground Reaction Forces","volume":"220","author":"Clark","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Exp. Biol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3072","DOI":"10.1177\/0363546520950731","article-title":"Impact-Related Ground Reaction Forces Are More Strongly Associated with Some Running Injuries than Others","volume":"48","author":"Johnson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23259671211011213","DOI":"10.1177\/23259671211011213","article-title":"Leg Stiffness, Joint Stiffness, and Running-Related Injury: Evidence from a Prospective Cohort Study","volume":"9","author":"Davis","year":"2021","journal-title":"Orthop. J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gruber, A.H. (2023). The \u201cImpacts Cause Injury\u201d Hypothesis: Running in Circles or Making New Strides?. J. Biomech., 156.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2023.111694"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gaitpost.2019.07.121","article-title":"Biomechanical Alterations in Individuals with Achilles Tendinopathy during Running and Hopping: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis","volume":"73","author":"Sancho","year":"2019","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"1633","article-title":"Lower Leg Muscle Stiffness on Two-Dimensional Shear Wave Elastography in Subjects with Medial Tibial Stress Syndrome","volume":"41","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Ultrasound Med. Off. J. Am. Inst. Ultrasound Med."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gaitpost.2023.01.018","article-title":"The Impact of Previous Musculoskeletal Injury on Running Gait Variability: A Systematic Review","volume":"101","author":"Blyton","year":"2023","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pmrj.2014.06.013","article-title":"Metabolic, Cardiopulmonary, and Gait Profiles of Recently Injured and Noninjured Runners","volume":"7","author":"Peng","year":"2015","journal-title":"PM R"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gaitpost.2019.04.027","article-title":"Vertical Ground Reaction Forces during Gait in Children with and without Calcaneal Apophysitis","volume":"71","author":"McSweeney","year":"2019","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.1249\/JSR.0000000000001019","article-title":"Healthy Running Habits for the Distance Runner: Clinical Utility of the American College of Sports Medicine Infographic","volume":"21","author":"Vincent","year":"2022","journal-title":"Curr. Sports Med. Rep."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"885","DOI":"10.1007\/s40279-019-01238-y","article-title":"What Are the Benefits and Risks Associated with Changing Foot Strike Pattern During Running? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Injury, Running Economy, and Biomechanics","volume":"50","author":"Anderson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2491","DOI":"10.3390\/clinpract14060195","article-title":"Running Cadence and the Influence on Frontal Plane Knee Deviations","volume":"14","author":"Peterson","year":"2024","journal-title":"Clin. Pract."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gaitpost.2022.09.089","article-title":"Effects of Level Running-Induced Fatigue on Running Kinematics: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"99","author":"Zandbergen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Gait Posture"}],"container-title":["Bioengineering"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2306-5354\/12\/9\/937\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T18:36:05Z","timestamp":1760034965000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2306-5354\/12\/9\/937"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,30]]},"references-count":42,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9]]}},"alternative-id":["bioengineering12090937"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/bioengineering12090937","relation":{},"ISSN":["2306-5354"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2306-5354","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,30]]}}}