{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]],"date-time":"2026-09-23T05:47:56Z","timestamp":1790142476314,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":107,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,18]],"date-time":"2025-09-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1758153600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001840","name":"Icelandic Center for Research (RANN\u00cdS)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2410471-051"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2410471-051"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001840","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Bioengineering"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Systems presenting haptic information have emerged as an important technological advance in assisting individuals with sensory impairments or amputations, where the aim is to enhance sensory perception or provide sensory substitution through tactile feedback. These systems provide information on limb positioning, environmental interactions, and gait events, significantly improving mobility in amputees and their confidence about using such devices. This review summarizes recent progress in haptic feedback systems by providing a comparative analysis of different feedback approaches, evaluating their clinical effectiveness and usability, tactile feedback system design, and user experience, while identifying key gaps in the literature. These insights can contribute to the advancement of more effective, user-centered haptic feedback systems tailored for lower limb prosthetics. The findings are aimed at guiding future research in designing adaptive, intuitive, and clinically viable feedback mechanisms, fostering the widespread implementation of haptic systems in both assistive and rehabilitative applications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bioengineering12090989","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,18]],"date-time":"2025-09-18T12:54:26Z","timestamp":1758200066000},"page":"989","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Haptic Feedback Systems for Lower-Limb Prosthetic Applications: A Review of System Design, User Experience, and Clinical Insights"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-3069-6976","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohammadmahdi","family":"Karimi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering and Natural Sciences, University of Iceland, 102 Reykjav\u00edk, Iceland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0669-2979","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nashmin","family":"Yeganeh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering and Natural Sciences, University of Iceland, 102 Reykjav\u00edk, Iceland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1942-1759","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ivan","family":"Makarov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Health Sciences, University of Iceland, 102 Reykjav\u00edk, Iceland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2385-9398","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Atli \u00d6rn","family":"Sverrisson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"\u00d6ssur Ehf., Grjothals 1\u20135, 110 Reykjav\u00edk, Iceland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Karl Fannar","family":"Gunnarsson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Health Sciences, University of Iceland, 102 Reykjav\u00edk, Iceland"},{"name":"Landsp\u00edtali\u2014National University Hospital, 105 Reykjav\u00edk, Iceland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0606-991X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Krist\u00edn","family":"Briem","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Health Sciences, University of Iceland, 102 Reykjav\u00edk, Iceland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9435-2258","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sigur\u00f0ur","family":"Brynj\u00f3lfsson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering and Natural Sciences, University of Iceland, 102 Reykjav\u00edk, Iceland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4168-4886","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"\u00c1rni","family":"Kristj\u00e1nsson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Health Sciences, University of Iceland, 102 Reykjav\u00edk, Iceland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1960-0263","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Runar","family":"Unnthorsson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering and Natural Sciences, University of Iceland, 102 Reykjav\u00edk, Iceland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1097\/00003086-199211000-00034","article-title":"Lower-Limb Proprioception in above-Knee Amputees","volume":"284","author":"Eakin","year":"1992","journal-title":"Clin. Orthop. Relat. Res."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1097\/00002060-200201000-00004","article-title":"Postural sway and active balance performance in highly active lower-limb amputees","volume":"81","author":"Buckley","year":"2002","journal-title":"Am. J. Phys. Med. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e32207","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2024.e32207","article-title":"Gait asymmetrical evaluation of lower limb amputees using wearable inertial sensors","volume":"10","author":"Maqbool","year":"2024","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.1016\/S0966-6362(02)00066-8","article-title":"Adjustments in gait symmetry with walking speed in trans-femoral and trans-tibial amputees","volume":"17","author":"Nolan","year":"2003","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carse, B., Hebenton, J., Brady, L., and Davie-Smith, F. (2023). Absent loading response knee flexion: The impact on gait kinetics and centre of mass motion in individuals with unilateral transfemoral amputation, and the effect of microprocessor controlled knee provision. Clin. Biomech., 108.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinbiomech.2023.106061"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sepp, L.A., Baum, B.S., Nelson-Wong, E., and Silverman, A.K. (2021). Hip Joint Contact Loading and Muscle Forces During Running With a Transtibial Amputation. ASME J. Biomech. Eng., 143.","DOI":"10.1115\/1.4049227"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"440","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apmr.2008.08.220","article-title":"The Prevalence of Osteoarthritis of the Intact Hip and Knee Among Traumatic Leg Amputees","volume":"90","author":"Struyf","year":"2009","journal-title":"Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"487","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apmr.2004.04.034","article-title":"The prevalence of knee pain and symptomatic knee osteoarthritis among veteran traumatic amputees and nonamputees","volume":"86","author":"Norvell","year":"2005","journal-title":"Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1682\/JRRD.2006.11.0147","article-title":"Review of secondary physical conditions associated with lower-limb amputation and long-term prosthesis use","volume":"45","author":"Gailey","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Rehabil. Res. Dev."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"485","DOI":"10.1007\/s12178-020-09656-6","article-title":"Technological Advances in Prosthesis Design and Rehabilitation Following Upper Extremity Limb Loss","volume":"13","author":"Bates","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Rev. Musculoskelet. Med."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85956","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3086807","article-title":"Advancements, Trends and Future Prospects of Lower Limb Prosthesis","volume":"9","author":"Asif","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moisan, G., and Ma, C.Z. (2024). Advances in prosthetics and orthotics. BMC Musculoskelet. Disord., 25.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12891-024-07246-y"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Varaganti, P., and Seo, S. (2024). Recent Advances in Biomimetics for the Development of Bio-Inspired Prosthetic Limbs. Biomimetics, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomimetics9050273"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.1038\/s41551-021-00732-x","article-title":"Toward higher-performance bionic limbs for wider clinical use","volume":"7","author":"Farina","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"016008","DOI":"10.1088\/1741-2552\/ac43f8","article-title":"A non-invasive wearable sensory leg neuroprosthesis: Mechanical, electrical and functional validation","volume":"19","author":"Basla","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Neural. Eng."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"782","DOI":"10.1007\/s40846-018-0374-1","article-title":"Vibrotactile Stimulation in the Upper-Arm for Restoring Individual Finger Sensations in Hand Prosthesis","volume":"38","author":"Fontana","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Med. Biol. Eng."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"769","article-title":"Designing sensory-substitution devices: Principles, pitfalls and potential 1","volume":"34","author":"Moldoveanu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Restor. Neurol. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Lauretti, C., Pinzari, G., Ciancio, A.L., Davalli, A., Sacchetti, R., Sterzi, S., Guglielmelli, E., and Zollo, L. (September, January 28). A vibrotactile stimulation system for improving postural control and knee joint proprioception in lower-limb amputees. Proceedings of the 26th IEEE International Symposium on Robot and Human Interactive Communication (RO-MAN), Lisbon, Portugal."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.1186\/s12984-024-01420-y","article-title":"A compact solution for vibrotactile proprioceptive feedback of wrist rotation and hand aperture","volume":"21","author":"Marinelli","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. NeuroEng. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2018.2836672","article-title":"HapPro: A Wearable Haptic Device for Proprioceptive Feedback","volume":"66","author":"Rossi","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1310","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSRE.2022.3173329","article-title":"Electrotactile Feedback Improves Grip Force Control and Enables Object Stiffness Recognition While Using a Myoelectric Hand","volume":"30","author":"Chai","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Neural. Syst. Rehabil. Eng."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1097\/JPO.0000000000000354","article-title":"Multistakeholder Perceptions on Lower-Limb Prosthetic User Requirements and the Development of Neuroprostheses: A Contextual Inquiry","volume":"35","author":"Alexandersson","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Prosthet. Orthot."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e20","DOI":"10.1097\/JPO.0000000000000355","article-title":"How Do We Measure Success? A Review of Performance Evaluations for Lower-Limb Neuroprosthetics","volume":"34","author":"Lechler","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Prosthet. Orthot."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maldonado-Contreras, J., Marayong, P., Khoo, I.-H., Rivera, R., Ruhe, B., and Wu, W. (2017, January 6\u20138). Proprioceptive improvements of lower-limb amputees under training with a vibrotactile device\u2014A pilot study. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE Healthcare Innovations and Point of Care Technologies (HI-POCT), Bethesda, MD, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/HIC.2017.8227626"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSRE.2020.3034521","article-title":"Increased Symmetry of Lower-Limb Amputees Walking With Concurrent Bilateral Vibrotactile Feedback","volume":"29","author":"Martini","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Neural. Syst. Rehabil. Eng."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, B., Feng, Y., and Wang, Q. (2016). Combining Vibrotactile Feedback with Volitional Myoelectric Control for Robotic Transtibial Prostheses. Front. Neurorobot., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnbot.2016.00008"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Erwin, A., and Sup, F.C. (2015). A Haptic Feedback Scheme to Accurately Position a Virtual Wrist Prosthesis Using a Three-Node Tactor Array. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0134095"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1356","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-019-0567-3","article-title":"Sensory feedback restoration in leg amputees improves walking speed, metabolic cost and phantom pain","volume":"25","author":"Petrini","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1186\/s12984-023-01234-4","article-title":"The impact of walking on the perception of multichannel electrotactile stimulation in individuals with lower-limb amputation and able-bodied participants","volume":"20","author":"Valette","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. NeuroEng. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1065","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2020.11.069","article-title":"Lightening the Perceived Prosthesis Weight with Neural Embodiment Promoted by Sensory Feedback","volume":"31","author":"Preatoni","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr. Biol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.1163\/22134808-00002456","article-title":"The Process of Distal Attribution Illuminated Through Studies of Sensory Substitution","volume":"27","author":"Auvray","year":"2014","journal-title":"Multisens. Res."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1109\/THMS.2021.3066856","article-title":"Neurophysiological Evaluation of Haptic Feedback for Myoelectric Prostheses","volume":"51","author":"Thomas","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Hum. Mach. Syst."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shehata, A.W., Rehani, M., Jassat, Z.E., and Hebert, J.S. (2020). Mechanotactile Sensory Feedback Improves Embodiment of a Prosthetic Hand During Active Use. Front. Neurosci., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2020.00263"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Escamilla-Nunez, R., Michelini, A., and Andrysek, J. (2020). Biofeedback Systems for Gait Rehabilitation of Individuals with Lower-Limb Amputation: A Systematic Review. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20061628"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"925","DOI":"10.1038\/s41563-021-00966-9","article-title":"Sensory feedback for limb prostheses in amputees","volume":"20","author":"Raspopovic","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Mater."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1007\/s10439-020-02678-8","article-title":"Recent Developments in Prosthesis Sensors, Texture Recognition, and Sensory Stimulation for Upper Limb Prostheses","volume":"49","author":"Masteller","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ann. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12567","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2023.3263399","article-title":"Gait Abnormality Detection in Unilateral Trans-Tibial Amputee in Real-Time Gait Using Wearable Setup","volume":"23","author":"Rathore","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gaitpost.2023.08.001","article-title":"Transfemoral amputees adapt their gait during cross-slope walking with specific upper-lower limb coordination","volume":"105","author":"Persine","year":"2023","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gaitpost.2007.12.002","article-title":"Balance control on a moving platform in unilateral lower limb amputees","volume":"28","author":"Vrieling","year":"2008","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dietrich, C., Nehrdich, S., Seifert, S., Blume, K.R., Miltner, W.H.R., Hofmann, G.O., and Weiss, T. (2018). Leg Prosthesis With Somatosensory Feedback Reduces Phantom Limb Pain and Increases Functionality. Front. Neurol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2018.00270"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.2522\/ptj.20150441","article-title":"Time-Discrete Vibrotactile Feedback Contributes to Improved Gait Symmetry in Patients With Lower Limb Amputations: Case Series","volume":"97","author":"Crea","year":"2017","journal-title":"Phys. Ther."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSRE.2008.920075","article-title":"A haptic feedback system for lower-limb prostheses","volume":"16","author":"Fan","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Neural. Syst. Rehabil. Eng."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Husman, M.A.B., Maqbool, H.F., Awad, M.I., Abouhossein, A., and Dehghani-Sanij, A.A. (2016, January 16\u201320). A wearable skin stretch haptic feedback device: Towards improving balance control in lower limb amputees. Proceedings of the 2016 38th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC), Orlando, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/EMBC.2016.7591147"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1239","DOI":"10.1682\/JRRD.2011.05.0088","article-title":"Can vibratory feedback be used to improve postural stability in persons with transtibial limb loss?","volume":"49","author":"Rusaw","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Rehabil. Res. Dev."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1186\/s12984-021-00952-x","article-title":"Improving postural stability among people with lower-limb amputations by tactile sensory substitution","volume":"18","author":"Chen","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. NeuroEng. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Peng, Y.H., Sakai, Y., Nakagawa, K., Funabora, Y., Aoyama, T., Yokoe, K., and Doki, S. (2023). Funabot-Suit: A bio-inspired and McKibben muscle-actuated suit for natural kinesthetic perception. Biomim. Intell. Robot., 3.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.birob.2023.100127"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rokhmanova, N., and Rombokas, E. (2019, January 24\u201328). Vibrotactile feedback improves foot placement perception on stairs for lower-limb prosthesis users. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE 16th International Conference on Rehabilitation Robotics (ICORR), Toronto, ON, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICORR.2019.8779518"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sie, A., Boe, D., and Rombokas, E. (2018, January 26\u201329). Design and evaluation of a wearable haptic feedback system for lower limb prostheses during stair descent. Proceedings of the 2018 7th IEEE International Conference on Biomedical Robotics and Biomechatronics (BioRob), Enschede, The Netherlands.","DOI":"10.1109\/BIOROB.2018.8487652"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaav8939","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.aav8939","article-title":"Enhancing functional abilities and cognitive integration of the lower limb prosthesis","volume":"11","author":"Petrini","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2018.08.033","article-title":"Biomimetic Intraneural Sensory Feedback Enhances Sensation Naturalness, Tactile Sensitivity, and Manual Dexterity in a Bidirectional Prosthesis","volume":"100","author":"Valle","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaax2352","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.aax2352","article-title":"Biomimetic sensory feedback through peripheral nerve stimulation improves dexterous use of a bionic hand","volume":"4","author":"George","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Robot."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaau8892","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.aau8892","article-title":"A closed-loop hand prosthesis with simultaneous intraneural tactile and position feedback","volume":"4","author":"Valle","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Robot."},{"key":"ref_53","first-page":"76","article-title":"Management of common surgical complications","volume":"41","author":"Skervin","year":"2023","journal-title":"Surgery"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Paisa, R., Nilsson, N.C., and Serafin, S. (2023). Tactile displays for auditory augmentation-A scoping review and reflections on music applications for hearing impaired users. Front. Comput. Sci., 5.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcomp.2023.1085539"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3505","DOI":"10.1007\/s00221-017-5073-6","article-title":"Relative vibrotactile spatial acuity of the torso","volume":"235","author":"Johannesson","year":"2017","journal-title":"Exp. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"619","DOI":"10.1177\/03010066241258969","article-title":"Vibrotactile spatial acuity on the back","volume":"53","author":"Plaisier","year":"2024","journal-title":"Perception"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1210","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apmr.2015.12.016","article-title":"Wearable Vibrotactile Biofeedback Device Allowing Identification of Different Floor Conditions for Lower-Limb Amputees","volume":"97","author":"Wan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yeganeh, N., Makarov, I., Stef\u00e1nsson Thors, S.S., Kristj\u00e1nsson, \u00c1., and Unnthorsson, R. (2023). Evaluating the Optimum Distance between Voice Coil Actuators Using the Relative Point Localization Method on the Forearm. Actuators, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/act12010006"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3432189","article-title":"VibroMap: Understanding the Spacing of Vibrotactile Actuators across the Body","volume":"4","author":"Elsayed","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proc. ACM Interact. Mob. Wearable. Ubiquitous. Technol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12724","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0404884101","article-title":"Modality maps within primate somatosensory cortex","volume":"101","author":"Friedman","year":"2004","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, H., Li, T., Bruschini, C., Enz, C., Justiz, J., Antfolk, C., and Koch, V.M. (2017, January 6\u20139). Multi-modal sensory feedback system for upper limb amputees. Proceedings of the 2017 New Generation of CAS (NGCAS), Genova, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/NGCAS.2017.62"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3405","DOI":"10.1007\/s00221-018-5387-z","article-title":"Measuring relative vibrotactile spatial acuity: Effects of tactor type, anchor points and tactile anisotropy","volume":"236","author":"Hoffmann","year":"2018","journal-title":"Exp. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yeganeh, N., Makarov, I., Unnthorsson, R., and Kristj\u00e1nsson, \u00c1. (2023). Effects of Stimulus Frequency and Location on Vibrotactile Discrimination Performance Using Voice Coil Actuators on the Forearm. Actuators, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/act12060224"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neulet.2007.12.054","article-title":"Tactile spatial acuity varies with site and axis in the human upper limb","volume":"433","author":"Cody","year":"2008","journal-title":"Neurosci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"051009","DOI":"10.1115\/1.4043610","article-title":"Exploring the Tactor Configurations of Vibrotactile Feedback Systems for Use in Lower-Limb Prostheses","volume":"141","author":"Shi","year":"2019","journal-title":"ASME J. Vib. Acoust."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1126\/science.178.4057.178","article-title":"The cutaneous \u201crabbit\u201d: A perceptual illusion","volume":"178","author":"Geldard","year":"1972","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"717","DOI":"10.1037\/0096-1523.32.3.717","article-title":"The cutaneous rabbit revisited","volume":"32","author":"Flach","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Percept. Perform."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1856","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.3887-09.2010","article-title":"The \u201cCutaneous Rabbit\u201d Hopping out of the Body","volume":"30","author":"Miyazaki","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"925","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.1972.35.6.925","article-title":"Sensory funneling. I. Psychophysical observations of human subjects and responses of cutaneous mechanoreceptive afferents in the cat to patterned skin stimuli","volume":"35","author":"Gardner","year":"1972","journal-title":"J. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rahal, L., Cha, J., Saddik, A.E., Kammerl, J., and Steinbach, E. (2009, January 11\u201313). Investigating the influence of temporal intensity changes on apparent movement phenomenon. Proceedings of the 2009 IEEE International Conference on Virtual Environments, Human-Computer Interfaces and Measurements Systems VECIMS, Hong Kong, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/VECIMS.2009.5068914"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jeannin, M., Dhiab, A.B., Pantera, L., Hudin, C., and Pan\u00ebels, S. (2021, January 6\u20139). The Funneling Illusion Using the Confinement of Vibrotactile Stimuli in Narrow Plates. Proceedings of the 2021 IEEE World Haptics Conference (WHC), Montreal, QC, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/WHC49131.2021.9517236"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"536","DOI":"10.1126\/science.71.1847.536","article-title":"The Tau Effect--an Example of Psychological Relativity","volume":"71","author":"Helson","year":"1930","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03329320","article-title":"The interdependence of time and space in somesthesis: The Tau effect reexamined","volume":"10","author":"Lechelt","year":"1977","journal-title":"Bull. Psychon. Soc."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.4992\/jjpsy.22.189","article-title":"The effect of space on time estimation (S-effect) in tactual space (I)","volume":"22","author":"Yoji","year":"1952","journal-title":"Jpn. J. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.91.1.128","article-title":"Space-Time Dependencies in Psychophysical Judgment of Extent and Duration\u2014Algebraic Models of the Tau and Kappa Effects","volume":"91","author":"Jones","year":"1982","journal-title":"Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03210054","article-title":"Apparent haptic movement","volume":"1","author":"Sherrick","year":"1966","journal-title":"Percept. Psychophys."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1050","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2008.06.027","article-title":"Tactile rivalry demonstrated with an ambiguous apparent-motion quartet","volume":"18","author":"Carter","year":"2008","journal-title":"Curr. Biol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1810","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.00125.2019","article-title":"The intensity order illusion: Temporal order of different vibrotactile intensity causes systematic localization errors","volume":"122","author":"Hoffmann","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3626237","article-title":"The Haptic Intensity Order Illusion Is Caused by Amplitude Changes","volume":"21","author":"Makarov","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACM Trans. Appl. Percept."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yeganeh, N., Makarov, I., Kristj\u00e1nsson, \u00c1., and Unnthorsson, R. (2024). Discrimination Accuracy of Sequential Versus Simultaneous Vibrotactile Stimulation on the Forearm. Appl. Sci., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/app14010043"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3529259","article-title":"Vibrotactile Threshold Measurements at the Wrist Using Parallel Vibration Actuators","volume":"19","author":"Pind","year":"2022","journal-title":"ACM Trans. Appl. Percept."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3198","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matpr.2020.09.648","article-title":"A brief review on various high energy absorbing materials","volume":"38","author":"Haq","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mater. Today Proc."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rungruangkitkrai, N., Phromphen, P., Chartvivatpornchai, N., Srisa, A., Laorenza, Y., Wongphan, P., and Harnkarnsujarit, N. (2024). Water Repellent Coating in Textile, Paper and Bioplastic Polymers: A Comprehensive Review. Polymers, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym16192790"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.1109\/TOH.2016.2580507","article-title":"A Haptic Feedback System for Phase-Based Sensory Restoration in Above-Knee Prosthetic Leg Users","volume":"9","author":"Villarreal","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Haptics"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marayong, P., Khoo, I.-H., Nguyen, K., Bharti, N., Ruhe, B., Craig, D., and Wu, W. (2014, January 8\u201310). Vibrotactile device for rehabilitative training of persons with lower-limb amputation. Proceedings of the 2014 IEEE Healthcare Innovation Conference (HIC), Seattle, WA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/HIC.2014.7038898"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Canino, J.M., and Fite, K.B. (2016, January 29\u201331). Haptic feedback in lower-limb prosthesis: Combined haptic feedback and EMG control of a powered prosthesis. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE EMBS International Student Conference (ISC), Ottawa, ON, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/EMBSISC.2016.7508600"},{"key":"ref_87","unstructured":"Leal, J.M.C., Gyllinsky, J.V., Zamudio, A.A.A., and Mankodiya, K. (2022, January 11\u201315). Hapticlink: A force-based haptic feedback system for single and double lower-limb amputees. Proceedings of the 44th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine & Biology Society, EMBC, Glasgow, UK."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"757","DOI":"10.1097\/OPX.0000000000001284","article-title":"Evaluation of an Audio-haptic Sensory Substitution Device for Enhancing Spatial Awareness for the Visually Impaired","volume":"95","author":"Hoffmann","year":"2018","journal-title":"Optom. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"J\u00f3hannesson, O.I., Balan, O., Unnthorsson, R., Moldoveanu, A., and Kristj\u00e1nsson, A. (2016). The Sound of Vision Project: On the Feasibility of an Audio-Haptic Representation of the Environment, for the Visually Impaired. Brain Sci., 6.","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci6030020"},{"key":"ref_90","first-page":"577","article-title":"The System Usability Scale: Past, Present, and Future","volume":"34","author":"Lewis","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Int."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1097\/JPO.0000000000000449","article-title":"What a Knee Should Be: A Pilot Study on the Perspectives of Highly Active Prosthetic Users","volume":"36","author":"Alexandersson","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Prosthet. Orthot."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2890","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSRE.2020.3035833","article-title":"Investigating the Effect of Vibrotactile Feedback in Transfemoral Amputee With and Without Movable Ankle Joint","volume":"28","author":"Vimal","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Neural. Syst. Rehabil. Eng."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3037","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.00001.2005","article-title":"Time-course of vibratory adaptation and recovery in cutaneous mechanoreceptive afferents","volume":"94","author":"Leung","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3134","DOI":"10.1037\/xge0001252","article-title":"The Development of Adaptation Aftereffects in the Vibrotactile Domain","volume":"151","author":"Domenici","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychol. Gen."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"904","DOI":"10.1177\/154193120605000909","article-title":"Nasa-Task Load Index (NASA-TLX); 20 Years Later","volume":"50","author":"Hart","year":"2006","journal-title":"Proc. Hum. Factors. Ergon. Soc. Annu. Meet."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2021.3092206","article-title":"Real-Time EEG-Based Cognitive Workload Monitoring on Wearable Devices","volume":"69","author":"Zanetti","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fishburn, F.A., Norr, M.E., Medvedev, A.V., and Vaidya, C.J. (2014). Sensitivity of fNIRS to cognitive state and load. Front. Hum. Neurosci., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2014.00076"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1186\/s12984-024-01448-0","article-title":"Optimality of multisensory integration while compensating for uncertain visual target information with artificial vibrotactile cues during reach planning","volume":"21","author":"Amann","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. NeuroEng. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"710","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jelekin.2008.04.005","article-title":"Relevance of motion artifact in electromyography recordings during vibration treatment","volume":"19","author":"Fratini","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Electromyogr. Kinesiol."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1642","DOI":"10.1249\/mss.0b013e318093f551","article-title":"Variation in neuromuscular responses during acute whole-body vibration exercise","volume":"39","author":"Abercromby","year":"2007","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Sports Exerc."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"807","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSRE.2014.2357175","article-title":"Closed-Loop Control of Myoelectric Prostheses With Electrotactile Feedback: Influence of Stimulation Artifact and Blanking","volume":"23","author":"Hartmann","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Neural. Syst. Rehabil. Eng."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1186\/s12984-022-01102-7","article-title":"A multi-dimensional framework for prosthetic embodiment: A perspective for translational research","volume":"19","author":"Zbinden","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. NeuroEng. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1186\/s12984-022-01006-6","article-title":"Prosthetic embodiment: Systematic review on definitions, measures, and experimental paradigms","volume":"19","author":"Zbinden","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. NeuroEng. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bekrater-Bodmann, R. (2021). Factors Associated With Prosthesis Embodiment and Its Importance for Prosthetic Satisfaction in Lower Limb Amputees. Front. Neurorobot., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnbot.2020.604376"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1097\/bpo.0b013e31815b4da8","article-title":"The lengthening of short upper extremity amputation stumps","volume":"28","author":"Bernstein","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Pediatr. Orthop."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Templeton, C.A., Strzalkowski, N.D.J., Galvin, P., and Bent, L.R. (2018). Cutaneous sensitivity in unilateral trans-tibial amputees. PLoS ONE, 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0197557"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"620","DOI":"10.7326\/0003-4819-49-3-620","article-title":"Diabetic neuropathy presenting as the initial clinical manifestation of diabetes","volume":"49","author":"Ellenberg","year":"1958","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."}],"container-title":["Bioengineering"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2306-5354\/12\/9\/989\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T18:47:44Z","timestamp":1760035664000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2306-5354\/12\/9\/989"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,18]]},"references-count":107,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9]]}},"alternative-id":["bioengineering12090989"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/bioengineering12090989","relation":{},"ISSN":["2306-5354"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2306-5354","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,18]]}}}