{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T23:45:52Z","timestamp":1791243952621,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":98,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,30]],"date-time":"2025-09-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1759190400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.mdpi.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Bioengineering"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Corneal endothelial dysfunction continues to be a primary indication for corneal transplantation globally. Due to ongoing constraints in donor tissue availability and graft durability, artificial graft technologies are increasingly recognized as viable alternatives, particularly for eyes unsuitable for conventional allogeneic transplantation. Aim: This article examines the contemporary state of artificial corneal endothelial grafts, emphasizing technological advancements, incorporation into surgical procedures, and their developing function in meeting the unfulfilled requirements of endothelial keratoplasty. Methods: A comprehensive synthesis of recent preclinical and clinical literature was performed, concentrating on scaffold-based constructs, cell-seeded and acellular methodologies, biomaterial characteristics, and innovative surgical delivery techniques. The review highlights translational pathways and contrasts the initial outcomes of artificial and donor-derived endothelial grafts. Results: Advancements in regenerative biomaterials and cell culture systems have resulted in the development of functional endothelial substitutes. Engineered grafts, comprising decellularized stromal carriers, synthetic polymer matrices, and human cell-laden constructs, have demonstrated promising biocompatibility and functional results in preliminary trials. The integration of these constructs into methods akin to Descemet membrane endothelial keratoplasty (DMEK) has improved clinical viability, diminished immunologic risk, and shown potential for visual recovery. Conclusions: Artificial endothelial grafts signify a revolutionary advancement in corneal surgery, addressing donor shortages and expanding the applications of endothelial keratoplasty. Although additional clinical validation and regulatory processes are required, existing evidence indicates that these technologies may soon transform treatment protocols for corneal endothelial disease.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bioengineering12101064","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,30]],"date-time":"2025-09-30T14:16:29Z","timestamp":1759241789000},"page":"1064","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Artificial and Bioengineered Therapeutic Options for Corneal Endothelial Disease"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1959-9749","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lanxing","family":"Fu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, East Kent Hospitals University NHS Foundation Trust, Canterbury CT1 3NG, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alfonso Vasquez","family":"Perez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cornea and External Disease Department, Moorfields Eye Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, London EC1V 2PD, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sundas","family":"Maqsood","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Maidstone and Tunbridge Wells NHS Foundation Trust, Maidstone ME16 9QQ, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nick","family":"Kopsachilis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, East Kent Hospitals University NHS Foundation Trust, Canterbury CT1 3NG, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3074-4508","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Roberta","family":"Foti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Rheumatology, A.O.U. \u201cPoliclinico-San Marco\u201d, 95123 Catania, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Enna \u201cKore\u201d, 94100 Enna, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7938-876X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fabiana","family":"D\u2019Esposito","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Enna \u201cKore\u201d, 94100 Enna, Italy"},{"name":"Imperial College Ophthalmic Research Group (ICORG) Unit, Imperial College, London NW1 5QH, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7486-8361","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mutali","family":"Musa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Optometry, University of Benin, Benin 300283, Nigeria"},{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Centre for Sight Africa, Nkpor, Onitsha 434112, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Daniele","family":"Tognetto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, Surgery and Health Sciences, University of Trieste, 34129 Trieste, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8424-0068","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Caterina","family":"Gagliano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Enna \u201cKore\u201d, 94100 Enna, Italy"},{"name":"Eye Center, \u201cG.B. Morgagni-DSV\u201d, 95125 Catania, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0999-5545","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marco","family":"Zeppieri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, Surgery and Health Sciences, University of Trieste, 34129 Trieste, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, University Hospital of Udine, 33100 Udine, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"614","DOI":"10.1136\/bjophthalmol-2011-300539","article-title":"Global estimates of visual impairment: 2010","volume":"96","author":"Pascolini","year":"2012","journal-title":"Br. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"863","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2023.03.012","article-title":"Global Trends in Blindness and Vision Impairment Resulting from Corneal Opacity 1984\u20132020: A Meta-analysis","volume":"130","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.3928\/1081-597X-19890701-12","article-title":"Eine erfolgreiche totale Keratoplastik (A successful total keratoplasty) 1906","volume":"5","author":"Zirm","year":"1989","journal-title":"Refract. Corneal Surg."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"CD012097","article-title":"Descemet\u2019s membrane endothelial keratoplasty (DMEK) versus Descemet\u2019s stripping automated endothelial keratoplasty (DSAEK) for corneal endothelial failure","volume":"6","author":"Stuart","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"618","DOI":"10.1097\/00003226-199811000-00010","article-title":"A surgical technique for posterior lamellar keratoplasty","volume":"17","author":"Melles","year":"1998","journal-title":"Cornea"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.1097\/00003226-200404000-00011","article-title":"A technique to excise the descemet membrane from a recipient cornea (descemetorhexis)","volume":"23","author":"Melles","year":"2004","journal-title":"Cornea"},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"987","article-title":"Descemet membrane endothelial keratoplasty (DMEK)","volume":"25","author":"Melles","year":"2006","journal-title":"Cornea"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"590","DOI":"10.1097\/ICO.0000000000002203","article-title":"Learning Descemet Membrane Endothelial Keratoplasty: A Survey of U.S","volume":"39","author":"Koo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Corneal Surgeons. Cornea"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2494","DOI":"10.1038\/s41433-022-02362-2","article-title":"Rebubbling and graft detachment in Descemet membrane endothelial keratoplasty using a standardised protocol","volume":"37","author":"Fu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eye"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1071","DOI":"10.1177\/11206721231217127","article-title":"Preloaded DMEK with endo-in technique: Standardising and minimising the learning curve over 5 years using 599 corneal tissues","volume":"34","author":"Ruzza","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eur. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-vision-100820-021253","article-title":"The Boston Keratoprosthesis-The First 50 Years: Some Reminiscences","volume":"8","author":"Dohlman","year":"2022","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcjo.2020.07.019","article-title":"Survival of penetrating keratoplasty: A claims-based longitudinal analysis","volume":"56","author":"Ahmad","year":"2021","journal-title":"Can. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"613","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtos.2020.07.012","article-title":"Predictive factors of Boston Type I Keratoprosthesis outcomes: A long-term analysis","volume":"18","author":"Kanu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ocul. Surf."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1063","DOI":"10.1177\/11206721231214076","article-title":"Boston Keratoprosthesis type 1 (KPro) without contact lens wearing in end-stage corneal disease: The APEC experience","volume":"34","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eur. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"312","DOI":"10.1136\/bjophthalmol-2020-317938","article-title":"One threat, different answers: The impact of COVID-19 pandemic on cornea donation and donor selection across Europe","volume":"106","author":"Thuret","year":"2022","journal-title":"Br. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3142","DOI":"10.4103\/IJO.IJO_1942_23","article-title":"Corneal blindness and eye banking: Current strategies and best practices","volume":"71","author":"Anitha","year":"2023","journal-title":"Indian J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1080\/08820538.2022.2152717","article-title":"Recent and Evolving Therapies in the Management of Endothelial Diseases","volume":"38","author":"Singh","year":"2023","journal-title":"Semin. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"712","DOI":"10.1111\/aos.14722","article-title":"New developments in corneal endothelial cell replacement","volume":"99","author":"Spinozzi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Acta Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"917","DOI":"10.3390\/jfb6030917","article-title":"Substrates for Expansion of Corneal Endothelial Cells towards Bioengineering of Human Corneal Endothelium","volume":"6","author":"Navaratnam","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Funct. Biomater."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1159\/000319797","article-title":"Bone marrow-derived endothelial progenitor cells: A promising therapeutic alternative for corneal endothelial dysfunction","volume":"193","author":"Shao","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cells Tissues Organs"},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"547","article-title":"Potential of human umbilical cord blood mesenchymal stem cells to heal damaged corneal endothelium","volume":"18","author":"Joyce","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mol. Vis."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e109856","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0109856","article-title":"Non-genetic direct reprogramming and biomimetic platforms in a preliminary study for adipose-derived stem cells into corneal endothelia-like cells","volume":"9","author":"Dai","year":"2014","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1340","DOI":"10.1089\/scd.2013.0510","article-title":"Isolation and transplantation of corneal endothelial cell-like cells derived from in-vitro-differentiated human embryonic stem cells","volume":"23","author":"Zhang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Stem Cells Dev."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"579","DOI":"10.1038\/eye.2013.15","article-title":"Corneal endothelium: Developmental strategies for regeneration","volume":"27","author":"Zavala","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eye"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"731","DOI":"10.1097\/00003226-200110000-00012","article-title":"Transplantation of adult human corneal endothelium ex vivo: A morphologic study","volume":"20","author":"Chen","year":"2001","journal-title":"Cornea"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1228","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.14-16166","article-title":"Understanding the process of corneal endothelial morphological change in vitro","volume":"56","author":"Roy","year":"2015","journal-title":"Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1065","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02624143","article-title":"Optimization of culture conditions for human corneal endothelial cells","volume":"25","author":"Engelmann","year":"1989","journal-title":"Vitr. Cell Dev. Biol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1743","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.03-0814","article-title":"Proliferative response of corneal endothelial cells from young and older donors","volume":"45","author":"Zhu","year":"2004","journal-title":"Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.3727\/096368913X675719","article-title":"Propagation of human corneal endothelial cells: A novel dual media approach","volume":"24","author":"Peh","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cell Transplant."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1007\/s10561-017-9665-y","article-title":"Improving the success rate of human corneal endothelial cell cultures from single donor corneas with stabilization medium","volume":"19","author":"Spinozzi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell Tissue Bank."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"446","DOI":"10.1038\/nrm1128","article-title":"Rocks: Multifunctional kinases in cell behaviour","volume":"4","author":"Riento","year":"2003","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1038\/s41536-025-00396-0","article-title":"Advancements in bioengineering for descemet membrane endothelial keratoplasty (DMEK)","volume":"10","author":"Zwingelberg","year":"2025","journal-title":"NPJ Regen. Med."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6738","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2010.05.020","article-title":"Bioengineering endothelialized neo-corneas using donor-derived corneal endothelial cells and decellularized corneal stroma","volume":"31","author":"Choi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"611","article-title":"Enhanced survival in vitro of human corneal endothelial cells using mouse embryonic stem cell conditioned medium","volume":"16","author":"Lu","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mol. Vis."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"845","DOI":"10.3727\/096368913X664559","article-title":"Factors affecting successful isolation of human corneal endothelial cells for clinical use","volume":"23","author":"Choi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cell Transplant."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8407","DOI":"10.1039\/D2TB01926D","article-title":"Detachment of bovine corneal endothelial cell sheets by cooling-induced surface hydration of poly(R)-3-hydroxybutyrate-based thermoresponsive copolymer coating","volume":"10","author":"Soh","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Mater. Chem. B"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1975","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actbio.2014.01.015","article-title":"Micro- and nanotopography with extracellular matrix coating modulate human corneal endothelial cell behavior","volume":"10","author":"Koo","year":"2014","journal-title":"Acta Biomater."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"702","DOI":"10.1080\/02713683.2018.1437455","article-title":"Poly(lactic-co-glycolic) Acid as a Slow-Release Drug-Carrying Matrix for Methotrexate Coated onto Intraocular Lenses to Conquer Posterior Capsule Opacification","volume":"43","author":"Kassumeh","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1007\/s10856-019-6303-1","article-title":"Poly-\u03b5-lysine based hydrogels as synthetic substrates for the expansion of corneal endothelial cells for transplantation","volume":"30","author":"Kennedy","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Med."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1325","DOI":"10.1097\/ICO.0000000000003094","article-title":"Delivery of Cells to the Cornea Using Synthetic Biomaterials","volume":"41","author":"Ross","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cornea"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ng, X.Y., Peh, G.S.L., Yam, G.H., Tay, H.G., and Mehta, J.S. (2023). Corneal Endothelial-like Cells Derived from Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells for Cell Therapy. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms241512433"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1208","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.04-1181","article-title":"ATP release through connexin hemichannels in corneal endothelial cells","volume":"46","author":"Gomes","year":"2005","journal-title":"Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.7150\/ijms.30759","article-title":"Engineering of Human Corneal Endothelial Cells In Vitro","volume":"16","author":"Zhu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9217866","DOI":"10.1155\/2021\/9217866","article-title":"The Response of Corneal Endothelial Cells to Shear Stress in an In Vitro Flow Model","volume":"2021","author":"Duan","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1080\/08977194.2021.2012468","article-title":"Regenerative responses of rabbit corneal endothelial cells to stimulation by fibroblast growth factor 1 (FGF1) derivatives, TTHX1001 and TTHX1114","volume":"39","author":"Weant","year":"2021","journal-title":"Growth Factors"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151302","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejcb.2023.151302","article-title":"GSK-3 inhibition reverts mesenchymal transition in primary human corneal endothelial cells","volume":"102","author":"Maurizi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eur. J. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_47","first-page":"109418","article-title":"Glycogen synthase kinase 3 inhibition promotes expansion of human corneal endothelial cells with normal karyotype and functional properties","volume":"225","author":"Zhu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Exp. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"995","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1712770","article-title":"Injection of Cultured Cells with a ROCK Inhibitor for Bullous Keratopathy","volume":"378","author":"Kinoshita","year":"2018","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"617","DOI":"10.1080\/02713680701530589","article-title":"Necessary prone position time for human corneal endothelial precursor transplantation in a rabbit endothelial deficiency model","volume":"32","author":"Mimura","year":"2007","journal-title":"Curr. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.62347\/CBYH7014","article-title":"Human corneal endothelial cell transplantation with nanocomposite gel sheet preserves corneal stability in post-corneal transplant bullous keratopathy: A 16-year follow-up","volume":"13","author":"Parikumar","year":"2024","journal-title":"Am. J. Stem Cells"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3275","DOI":"10.1002\/jcp.30085","article-title":"Corneal endothelium tissue engineering: An evolution of signaling molecules, cells, and scaffolds toward 3D bioprinting and cell sheets","volume":"236","author":"Khalili","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Cell Physiol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7060","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-86340-w","article-title":"Biofabrication of chitosan\/chitosan nanoparticles\/polycaprolactone transparent membrane for corneal endothelial tissue engineering","volume":"11","author":"Tayebi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109376","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exer.2022.109376","article-title":"The soil and the seed: The relationship between Descemet\u2019s membrane and the corneal endothelium","volume":"227","author":"Petrela","year":"2023","journal-title":"Exp. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hern\u00e1ndez, J., Santos, N., and Ahumada, M. (2025). Advances in 3D Bioprinting for Corneal Regeneration. Gels, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/gels11060422"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"691","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1525-1594.2010.01174.x","article-title":"Development and characterization of a full-thickness acellular porcine cornea matrix for tissue engineering","volume":"35","author":"Du","year":"2011","journal-title":"Artif. Organs"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chi, M., Yuan, B., Xie, Z., and Hong, J. (2023). The Innovative Biomaterials and Technologies for Developing Corneal Endothelium Tissue Engineering Scaffolds: A Review and Prospect. Bioengineering, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/bioengineering10111284"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8084","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-12150-3","article-title":"Antimicrobial properties of chitosan from different developmental stages of the bioconverter insect Hermetia illucens","volume":"12","author":"Guarnieri","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6594","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actbio.2013.01.020","article-title":"Ultrathin chitosan-poly(ethylene glycol) hydrogel films for corneal tissue engineering","volume":"9","author":"Ozcelik","year":"2013","journal-title":"Acta Biomater."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1139","DOI":"10.1080\/09205063.2015.1078930","article-title":"Oriented nanofibrous silk as a natural scaffold for ocular epithelial regeneration","volume":"26","author":"Biazar","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Biomater. Sci. Polym. Ed."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4573","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2013.02.009","article-title":"Effects of silk fibroin fiber incorporation on mechanical properties, endothelial cell colonization and vascularization of PDLLA scaffolds","volume":"34","author":"Stoppato","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4249","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.17-22106","article-title":"Allogeneic Descemet\u2019s Membrane Transplantation Enhances Corneal Endothelial Monolayer Formation and Restores Functional Integrity Following Descemet\u2019s Stripping","volume":"58","author":"Bhogal","year":"2017","journal-title":"Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100987","DOI":"10.1016\/j.preteyeres.2021.100987","article-title":"Approaches for corneal endothelium regenerative medicine","volume":"87","author":"Thuret","year":"2022","journal-title":"Prog. Retin. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1301","DOI":"10.1021\/acsbiomaterials.2c00039","article-title":"Tissue-Engineered Corneal Endothelial Sheets Using Ultrathin Acellular Porcine Corneal Stroma Substrates for Endothelial Keratoplasty","volume":"8","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"ACS Biomater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109795","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exer.2024.109795","article-title":"Deciphering the molecular symphony: Unraveling endothelial-to-mesenchymal transition in corneal endothelial cells","volume":"240","author":"Lu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Exp. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108690","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exer.2021.108690","article-title":"The impact of biomechanics on corneal endothelium tissue engineering","volume":"209","author":"Tsai","year":"2021","journal-title":"Exp. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_66","first-page":"100011","article-title":"Various manufacturing methods and ideal properties of scaffolds for tissue engineering applications","volume":"1","author":"Suamte","year":"2023","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14933","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-49575-2","article-title":"The impact of decellularization methods on extracellular matrix derived hydrogels","volume":"9","author":"Ahearne","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2041731419875876","DOI":"10.1177\/2041731419875876","article-title":"Rapid porcine corneal decellularisation through the use of sodium N-lauroyl glutamate and supernuclease","volume":"10","author":"Dong","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Tissue Eng."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"769","DOI":"10.3109\/02713683.2015.1062114","article-title":"Corneal Decellularization: A Method of Recycling Unsuitable Donor Tissue for Clinical Translation?","volume":"41","author":"Wilson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exer.2015.01.020","article-title":"Acellular human corneal matrix sheets seeded with human adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells integrate functionally in an experimental animal model","volume":"132","author":"Chiesa","year":"2015","journal-title":"Exp. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Luo, X., He, X., Zhao, H., Ma, J., Tao, J., Zhao, S., Yan, Y., Li, Y., and Zhu, S. (2023). Research Progress of Polymer Biomaterials as Scaffolds for Corneal Endothelium Tissue Engineering. Nanomaterials, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/nano13131976"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108127","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exer.2020.108127","article-title":"Modeling the cornea in 3-dimensions: Current and future perspectives","volume":"197","author":"McKay","year":"2020","journal-title":"Exp. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"188","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exer.2018.05.010","article-title":"3D bioprinting of a corneal stroma equivalent","volume":"173","author":"Isaacson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Exp. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1800398","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.201800398","article-title":"Ex Vivo Functionality of 3D Bioprinted Corneal Endothelium Engineered with Ribonuclease 5-Overexpressing Human Corneal Endothelial Cells","volume":"7","author":"Kim","year":"2018","journal-title":"Adv. Healthc. Mater."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1186\/s13287-024-03672-w","article-title":"Bioprinting of human pluripotent stem cell derived corneal endothelial cells with hydrazone crosslinked hyaluronic acid bioink","volume":"15","author":"Puistola","year":"2024","journal-title":"Stem Cell Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajo.2021.08.005","article-title":"Long-term Outcomes of Descemet Stripping Endothelial Keratoplasty: Ten-Year Graft Survival and Endothelial Cell Loss","volume":"234","author":"Fu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Am. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Snyder, A.J., Bauer, A.J., Straiko, M.D., Terry, M.A., and Chen, J. (2025). Long-term Outcomes of Descemet Stripping Automated Endothelial Keratoplasty Versus Descemet Membrane Endothelial Keratoplasty Under a Failed Penetrating Keratoplasty Graft. Cornea.","DOI":"10.1097\/ICO.0000000000003828"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1282","DOI":"10.1097\/ICO.0000000000002585","article-title":"Four-Year Survival Comparison of Endothelial Keratoplasty Techniques in Patients with Previous Glaucoma Surgery","volume":"40","author":"Alshaker","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cornea"},{"key":"ref_79","first-page":"795","article-title":"Busin Glide-Assisted Pull-Through Insertion of Artificial Corneal Endothelium (EndoArt)","volume":"17","author":"Kobayashi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. Med. Case Rep. J."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Romano, D., Ventura, M., Vaccaro, S., Forbice, E., Hau, S., Semeraro, F., and Romano, V. (2024). Corneal Artificial Endothelial Layer (EndoArt): Literature Review and Our Experience. J. Clin. Med., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm13216520"},{"key":"ref_81","unstructured":"Eye-Yon Medical (2025, July 25). EndoArt\u00ae Implantation in Subjects with Chronic Corneal Edema, Clinicaltrials.Gov, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT05139771."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1633","DOI":"10.1097\/ICO.0000000000002806","article-title":"Implantation of an Artificial Endothelial Layer for Treatment of Chronic Corneal Edema","volume":"40","author":"Auffarth","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cornea"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"288","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajo.2019.06.012","article-title":"Descemet membrane endothelial keratoplasty versus Descemet stripping automated endothelial keratoplasty and penetrating keratoplasty","volume":"207","author":"Woo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_84","first-page":"1238","article-title":"Descemet Endothelial Thickness Comparison Trial: Two-Year Results from a Randomized Trial Comparing Ultrathin Descemet Stripping Automated Endothelial Keratoplasty with Descemet Membrane Endothelial Keratoplasty","volume":"128","author":"Lin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1508","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2018.03.050","article-title":"Five-year graft survival of Descemet membrane endothelial keratoplasty (EK) versus Descemet stripping EK and the effect of donor sex matching","volume":"125","author":"Price","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajo.2020.04.005","article-title":"Descemet Membrane Endothelial Keratoplasty: Ten-Year Graft Survival and Clinical Outcomes","volume":"217","author":"Oellerich","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.1097\/ICO.0000000000003310","article-title":"Comparison of Long-Term Outcomes of DSEK and DMEK in Fuchs Endothelial Dystrophy","volume":"43","author":"Fu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cornea"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1448","DOI":"10.1097\/ICO.0000000000003630","article-title":"Descemet Membrane Endothelial Keratoplasty in Aphakic, Aniridic, and Vitrectomized Eyes: A Review","volume":"43","author":"Romano","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cornea"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1088","DOI":"10.1097\/ICO.0000000000003433","article-title":"Early Outcomes of an Artificial Endothelial Replacement Membrane Implantation After Failed Repeat Endothelial Keratoplasty","volume":"43","author":"Fontana","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cornea"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"803","DOI":"10.1007\/s00347-024-02122-5","article-title":"EndoArt\u00ae: Ergebnisse bei Patienten mit Glaukom-Drainage-Implantaten EndoArt\u00ae: Results in patients with glaucoma drainage devices","volume":"121","author":"Wiedemann","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ophthalmologie"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cesaro, B., Ferrara, M., Morescalchi, F., Bergamaschi, N., Gandolfo, F., Semeraro, F., and Romano, V. (2025). Atypical Endophthalmitis Following Artificial Corneal Endothelial Implantation. Cornea.","DOI":"10.1097\/ICO.0000000000003916"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1240","DOI":"10.1097\/ICO.0000000000003734","article-title":"A Novel Artificial Endothelial Replacement Membrane for the Treatment of Chronic Corneal Edema","volume":"44","author":"Daphna","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cornea"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Donner, R., Klimek, M., and Schmidinger, G. (2025). Influence of Posterior Corneal Surface Irregularities on the Attachment of an Artificial Endothelial Layer (EndoART). J. Clin. Med., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm14103395"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nicole, M., Damien, G., and Alain, S. (2025). Spontaneous Artificial Corneal Endothelial Graft Reattachment: Case Report. Cornea.","DOI":"10.1097\/ICO.0000000000003905"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2401563","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.202401563","article-title":"Potential of an amphiphilic artificial corneal endothelial layer as a replacement option for damaged corneal endothelium","volume":"13","author":"Fang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv. Healthc. Mater."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101878","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajoc.2023.101878","article-title":"Pull-through insertion of EndoArt for complex eyes","volume":"32","author":"Abusayf","year":"2023","journal-title":"Am. J. Ophthalmol. Case Rep."},{"key":"ref_97","first-page":"559","article-title":"Corneal Endothelial Keratoprosthesis EndoArt in Patients with Glaucoma at High Risk of Graft Failure After Keratoplasty","volume":"202","author":"Wiedemann","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cornea"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fontana, L., di Geronimo, N., Versura, P., and Moramarco, A. (2025). Long-Term Clinical Outcomes and Anterior Segment Optical Coherence Tomography Findings After Artificial Endothelial Replacement Membrane Implantation. Cornea.","DOI":"10.1097\/ICO.0000000000003835"}],"container-title":["Bioengineering"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2306-5354\/12\/10\/1064\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,30]],"date-time":"2025-09-30T14:48:24Z","timestamp":1759243704000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2306-5354\/12\/10\/1064"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,30]]},"references-count":98,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10]]}},"alternative-id":["bioengineering12101064"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/bioengineering12101064","relation":{},"ISSN":["2306-5354"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2306-5354","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,30]]}}}