{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,13]],"date-time":"2026-07-13T14:42:45Z","timestamp":1783953765283,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":186,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,6]],"date-time":"2025-11-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1762387200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012190","name":"Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Russian Federation","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["075-15-2024-658"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["075-15-2024-658"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012190","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Bioengineering"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Periodontal regeneration remains one of the most demanding challenges in oral bioengineering due to the structural complexity of the periodontium and the inflammatory microenvironment accompanying disease. Conventional surgical and pharmacological therapies often fail to achieve full restoration of bone, ligament and cementum, prompting the development of cell-based and biomaterial-assisted approaches. This review summarizes current advances in cellular technologies for periodontal regeneration, emphasizing the biological rationale, material design and delivery methods shaping next-generation treatments. We discuss stem-cell-based strategies employing periodontal ligament, dental pulp and mesenchymal stem cells, their paracrine and immunomodulatory roles, and how their therapeutic potential is enhanced through integration into engineered scaffolds. Recent progress in hydrogel systems, microspheres, decellularized matrices and 3D bioprinting is analyzed, highlighting how structural cues, bioactive nanoparticles and gene-modified cells enable multi-tissue regeneration. Emerging delivery and biofabrication techniques, from manual seeding to automated and in situ printing, are reviewed as key determinants of clinical translation. The convergence of bioprinting precision, immune-responsive biomaterials and personalized cellular constructs positions periodontal bioengineering as a rapidly maturing field with strong prospects for functional restoration of diseased oral tissues.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bioengineering12111213","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,6]],"date-time":"2025-11-06T17:51:43Z","timestamp":1762451503000},"page":"1213","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Bioengineering of Periodontal Tissues: Cell Therapy and Biomaterials Application"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4182-1318","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohammad Hadi","family":"Norahan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Regenerative Medicine, I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University (Sechenov University), 8\/2 Trubetskaya St., Moscow 119991, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0812-568X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sudesh","family":"Sivarasu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Human Biology, University of Cape Town, Cape Town 7701, Western Cape, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4137-8993","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alexey","family":"Fayzullin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Regenerative Medicine, I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University (Sechenov University), 8\/2 Trubetskaya St., Moscow 119991, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1765-7386","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chibuike","family":"Mbanefo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Human Biology, University of Cape Town, Cape Town 7701, Western Cape, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Polina","family":"Bikmulina","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Regenerative Medicine, I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University (Sechenov University), 8\/2 Trubetskaya St., Moscow 119991, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9862-2657","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Igor","family":"Ashurko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Regenerative Medicine, I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University (Sechenov University), 8\/2 Trubetskaya St., Moscow 119991, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Iana","family":"Khristidis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Regenerative Medicine, I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University (Sechenov University), 8\/2 Trubetskaya St., Moscow 119991, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Peter","family":"Timashev","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Regenerative Medicine, I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University (Sechenov University), 8\/2 Trubetskaya St., Moscow 119991, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"207","article-title":"Tooth loss in periodontal patients","volume":"67","author":"Matthews","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Can. Dent. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.1902\/jop.1982.53.9.539","article-title":"Tooth loss in 100 treated patients with periodontal disease. A long-term study","volume":"53","author":"McFall","year":"1982","journal-title":"J. Periodontol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1016\/j.identj.2023.08.002","article-title":"Periodontal Disease, Tooth Loss, and Systemic Conditions: An Exploratory Study","volume":"74","author":"Chatzopoulos","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. Dent. J."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"g2645","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.g2645","article-title":"Time to take periodontitis seriously","volume":"348","author":"Chapple","year":"2014","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"140","article-title":"Prevalence of Gingivitis in a Group of 35- to 70-Year-Olds Residing in Puerto Rico","volume":"36","author":"Encarnacion","year":"2017","journal-title":"Puerto Rico Health Sci. J."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e35748","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0000000000035748","article-title":"Periodontal health of a low socioeconomic level population in Yucatan (Mexico): A cross-sectional study","volume":"102","year":"2023","journal-title":"Medicine"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0757.2011.00416.x","article-title":"Socioeconomic position indicators and periodontitis: Examining the evidence","volume":"58","author":"Borrell","year":"2012","journal-title":"Periodontology 2000"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Albandar, J.M. (2024). Disparities and social determinants of periodontal diseases. Periodontology 2000, early view.","DOI":"10.1111\/prd.12547"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"314","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-051X.2005.00801.x","article-title":"A socio-economic perspective on periodontal diseases: A systematic review","volume":"32","author":"Klinge","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Clin. Periodontol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1002\/JPER.21-0111","article-title":"Economic burden of periodontitis in the United States and Europe: An updated estimation","volume":"93","author":"Botelho","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Periodontol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.17576\/JSKM-2023-2101-07","article-title":"Periodontitis patients\u2019 oral health experience and quality of life during the Malaysian Movement Control Order-2020","volume":"21","author":"Asli","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Sains Kesihat. Malays."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1034\/j.1600-051X.29.s3.5.x","article-title":"A systematic review of the effect of surgical debridement vs non-surgical debridement for the treatment of chronic periodontitis","volume":"29","author":"Trombelli","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Clin. Periodontol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1111\/jcpe.13264","article-title":"Adjunctive effect of systemic antimicrobials in periodontitis therapy: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"47","author":"Teughels","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clin. Periodontol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.1111\/prd.12008","article-title":"Surgical and nonsurgical periodontal therapy. Learned and unlearned concepts","volume":"62","author":"Lang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Periodontology 2000"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160","DOI":"10.1902\/jop.2013.130142","article-title":"Antibiotic resistance in human chronic periodontitis microbiota","volume":"85","author":"Rams","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Periodontol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1177\/0022034515618887","article-title":"Regenerative Medicine for Periodontal and Peri-implant Diseases","volume":"95","author":"Larsson","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Dent. Res."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mousaei Ghasroldasht, M., Seok, J., Park, H.S., Liakath Ali, F.B., and Al-Hendy, A. (2022). Stem Cell Therapy: From Idea to Clinical Practice. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23052850"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"633","DOI":"10.1089\/ten.teb.2021.0012","article-title":"Highlights on Advancing Frontiers in Tissue Engineering","volume":"28","author":"Ashammakhi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Tissue Eng. Part. B Rev."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1177\/0391398819828558","article-title":"Tissue engineering in periodontology: Biological mediators for periodontal regeneration","volume":"42","author":"Carmagnola","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Artif. Organs"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"El-Kadiry, A.E., Rafei, M., and Shammaa, R. (2021). Cell Therapy: Types, Regulation, and Clinical Benefits. Front. Med., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2021.756029"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mount, N.M., Ward, S.J., Kefalas, P., and Hyllner, J. (2015). Cell-based therapy technology classifications and translational challenges. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci., 370.","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2015.0017"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shammaa, R., El-Kadiry, A.E., Abusarah, J., and Rafei, M. (2020). Mesenchymal Stem Cells Beyond Regenerative Medicine. Front. Cell Dev. Biol., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcell.2020.00072"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1111\/prd.12250","article-title":"Cellular therapy in periodontal regeneration","volume":"79","author":"Nunez","year":"2019","journal-title":"Periodontology 2000"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobcr.2023.07.001","article-title":"Stem cell therapies for periodontal tissue regeneration: A meta-analysis of clinical trials","volume":"13","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Oral Biol. Craniofac. Res."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"e54115","article-title":"Advancements in Periodontal Regeneration: A Comprehensive Review of Stem Cell Therapy","volume":"16","author":"Bharuka","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1186\/s13287-024-04003-9","article-title":"Dental stem cell dynamics in periodontal ligament regeneration: From mechanism to application","volume":"15","author":"Wen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Stem Cell Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1002\/stem.3288","article-title":"Stem cell contributions to cementoblast differentiation in healthy periodontal ligament and periodontitis","volume":"39","author":"Zhao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Stem Cells"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.22203\/eCM.v018a07","article-title":"Human mandible bone defect repair by the grafting of dental pulp stem\/progenitor cells and collagen sponge biocomplexes","volume":"18","author":"Lanza","year":"2009","journal-title":"Eur. Cell Mater."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Inchingolo, A.M., Inchingolo, A.D., Nardelli, P., Latini, G., Trilli, I., Ferrante, L., Malcangi, G., Palermo, A., Inchingolo, F., and Dipalma, G. (2024). Stem Cells: Present Understanding and Prospects for Regenerative Dentistry. J. Funct. Biomater., 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/jfb15100308"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alvites, R., Branquinho, M., Sousa, A.C., Lopes, B., Sousa, P., and Mauricio, A.C. (2022). Mesenchymal Stem\/Stromal Cells and Their Paracrine Activity-Immunomodulation Mechanisms and How to Influence the Therapeutic Potential. Pharmaceutics, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics14020381"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2616807","DOI":"10.1155\/2021\/2616807","article-title":"Comparing the Therapeutic Potential of Stem Cells and their Secretory Products in Regenerative Medicine","volume":"2021","author":"Foo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Stem Cells Int."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1111\/iej.14180","article-title":"Angiogenic and neurogenic potential of dental-derived stem cells for functional pulp regeneration: A narrative review","volume":"58","author":"Su","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. Endod. J."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"962","DOI":"10.1089\/ten.tea.2020.0141","article-title":"Bone Marrow Mesenchymal Stem Cell-Derived Small Extracellular Vesicles Promote Periodontal Regeneration","volume":"27","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Tissue Eng. Part. A"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"438","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-021-03298-5","article-title":"A mechanosensitive peri-arteriolar niche for osteogenesis and lymphopoiesis","volume":"591","author":"Shen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1096","DOI":"10.1186\/s12967-024-05900-6","article-title":"Cellular crosstalk in the bone marrow niche","volume":"22","author":"Huang","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Prasad, P., and Cancelas, J.A. (2024). From Marrow to Bone and Fat: Exploring the Multifaceted Roles of Leptin Receptor Positive Bone Marrow Mesenchymal Stromal Cells. Cells, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells13110910"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1089\/ten.teb.2021.0019","article-title":"The Therapeutic Potential of Hematopoietic Stem Cells in Bone Regeneration","volume":"28","author":"Oliveira","year":"2022","journal-title":"Tissue Eng. Part. B Rev."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Martinez-Garcia, M., and Hernandez-Lemus, E. (2021). Periodontal Inflammation and Systemic Diseases: An Overview. Front. Physiol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2021.709438"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"558","DOI":"10.1038\/s41423-023-00998-y","article-title":"Immunomodulatory properties of mesenchymal stem cells\/dental stem cells and their therapeutic applications","volume":"20","author":"Li","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cell Mol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12712","DOI":"10.1111\/cpr.12712","article-title":"Immune modulation by mesenchymal stem cells","volume":"53","author":"Jiang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Prolif."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"176996","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejphar.2024.176996","article-title":"Mesenchymal stem cells alleviate inflammatory responses through regulation of T-cell subsets","volume":"983","author":"Ji","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7459","DOI":"10.3892\/mmr.2017.7514","article-title":"Transplantation of periodontal ligament cell sheets expressing human beta-defensin-3 promotes anti-inflammation in a canine model of periodontitis","volume":"16","author":"Zhu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mol. Med. Rep."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1186\/s13287-024-03882-2","article-title":"Xenogenous implanted dental follicle stem cells promote periodontal regeneration through inducing the N2 phenotype of neutrophils","volume":"15","author":"Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Stem Cell Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"ZE01","article-title":"Cell Sheet Engineering in Periodontology: A Review","volume":"18","author":"Patil","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Clin. Diagn. Res."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.1002\/term.1785","article-title":"Cell sheet engineering and its application for periodontal regeneration","volume":"9","author":"Iwata","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Tissue Eng. Regen. Med."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1273","DOI":"10.1089\/ten.tea.2017.0405","article-title":"In Vivo Periodontium Formation Around Titanium Implants Using Periodontal Ligament Cell Sheet","volume":"24","author":"Washio","year":"2018","journal-title":"Tissue Eng. Part. A"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jiang, Z., Li, N., Zhu, D., Ren, L., Shao, Q., Yu, K., and Yang, G. (2021). Genetically modified cell sheets in regenerative medicine and tissue engineering. Biomaterials, 275.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2021.120908"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1002\/JPER.19-0353","article-title":"Living cell-based regenerative medicine technologies for periodontal soft tissue augmentation","volume":"91","author":"McGuire","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Periodontol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kwon, S.G., Kwon, Y.W., Lee, T.W., Park, G.T., and Kim, J.H. (2018). Recent advances in stem cell therapeutics and tissue engineering strategies. Biomater. Res., 22.","DOI":"10.1186\/s40824-018-0148-4"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"534","DOI":"10.1039\/D4LP00001C","article-title":"Polymeric biomaterials for periodontal tissue engineering and periodontitis","volume":"2","author":"Demir","year":"2024","journal-title":"RSC Appl. Polym."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alqahtani, A.M., Moorehead, R., and Asencio, I.O. (2023). Guided Tissue and Bone Regeneration Membranes: A Review of Biomaterials and Techniques for Periodontal Treatments. Polymers, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym15163355"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Almeida, N.D., Carneiro, C.A., de Marco, A.C., Porto, V.C., and Franca, R. (2024). 3D Bioprinting Techniques and Bioinks for Periodontal Tissues Regeneration-A Literature Review. Biomimetics, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomimetics9080480"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"254","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2015.08.045","article-title":"Synthesis, properties, and biomedical applications of gelatin methacryloyl (GelMA) hydrogels","volume":"73","author":"Yue","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lestari, W., Irfanita, N., Haris, M.S., Lin, G.S.S., Jaswir, I., Darnis, D.S., Ruziantee, N., Mazlan, N., Idrus, E., and Amir, L.R. (2025). Advancements and applications of gelatin-based scaffolds in dental engineering: A narrative review. Odontology, 1\u201316.","DOI":"10.1007\/s10266-025-01155-9"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Atia, G.A.N., Shalaby, H.K., Zehravi, M., Ghobashy, M.M., Attia, H.A.N., Ahmad, Z., Khan, F.S., Dey, A., Mukerjee, N., and Alexiou, A. (2022). Drug-Loaded Chitosan Scaffolds for Periodontal Tissue Regeneration. Polymers, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym14153192"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hwang, H.S., and Lee, C.S. (2023). Recent Progress in Hyaluronic-Acid-Based Hydrogels for Bone Tissue Engineering. Gels, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/gels9070588"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.5005\/jp-journals-10015-2367","article-title":"Role of Alginate-based Scaffolds for Periodontal Regeneration of Intrabony Defects: A Systematic Review","volume":"15","author":"Ramamurthy","year":"2024","journal-title":"World J. Dent."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.34172\/joddd.2022.001","article-title":"Biomaterials and biotechnology for periodontal tissue regeneration: Recent advances and perspectives","volume":"16","author":"Deng","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Dent. Res. Dent. Clin. Dent. Prospect."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lopez-Valverde, N., Lopez-Valverde, A., Montero, J., Rodriguez, C., Macedo de Sousa, B., and Aragoneses, J.M. (2023). Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial activity of natural products in periodontal disease: A comprehensive review. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2023.1226907"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.34172\/japid.2021.003","article-title":"Antibacterial agent-releasing scaffolds in dental tissue engineering","volume":"13","author":"Gholami","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Adv. Periodontol. Implant. Dent."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ding, T., Kang, W., Li, J., Yu, L., and Ge, S. (2021). An in situ tissue engineering scaffold with growth factors combining angiogenesis and osteoimmunomodulatory functions for advanced periodontal bone regeneration. J. Nanobiotechnol., 19.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12951-021-00992-4"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mijiritsky, E., Assaf, H.D., Peleg, O., Shacham, M., Cerroni, L., and Mangani, L. (2021). Use of PRP, PRF and CGF in Periodontal Regeneration and Facial Rejuvenation-A Narrative Review. Biology, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/biology10040317"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1007","DOI":"10.1111\/cbdd.13959","article-title":"Recent progress in materials development and biological properties of GTR membranes for periodontal regeneration","volume":"98","author":"Bilal","year":"2021","journal-title":"Chem. Biol. Drug Des."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zong, C., Bronckaers, A., Willems, G., He, H., and Cadenas de Llano-Perula, M. (2023). Nanomaterials for Periodontal Tissue Regeneration: Progress, Challenges and Future Perspectives. J. Funct. Biomater., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/jfb14060290"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1002\/jbm.b.35133","article-title":"The improvement of periodontal tissue regeneration using a 3D-printed carbon nanotube\/chitosan\/sodium alginate composite scaffold","volume":"111","author":"Suo","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Mater. Res. B Appl. Biomater."},{"key":"ref_66","first-page":"213","article-title":"Polydopamine-mediated graphene oxide and nanohydroxyapatite-incorporated conductive scaffold with an immunomodulatory ability accelerates periodontal bone regeneration in diabetes","volume":"18","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"Bioact. Mater."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.4161\/biom.22948","article-title":"Biomaterials for periodontal regeneration: A review of ceramics and polymers","volume":"2","author":"Shue","year":"2012","journal-title":"Biomatter"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jasser, R.A., AlSubaie, A., and AlShehri, F. (2021). Effectiveness of beta-tricalcium phosphate in comparison with other materials in treating periodontal infra-bony defects around natural teeth: A systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Oral Health, 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12903-021-01570-8"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dai, P., Qi, G., Zhu, M., Du, Q., Wang, K., Gao, Y., Li, M., Feng, X., and Zhang, X. (2024). Periodontal ligament stem cell tissue engineering scaffolds can guide and promote canine periodontal tissue regeneration. Front. Vet. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2024.1465879"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1007\/s13770-021-00423-3","article-title":"Tissue Engineering with Compact Bone-Derived Cell Spheroids Enables Bone Formation around Transplanted Tooth","volume":"19","author":"Matsumura","year":"2022","journal-title":"Tissue Eng. Regen. Med."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1111","DOI":"10.1111\/jcpe.13474","article-title":"A tissue-engineered biocomplex for periodontal reconstruction. A proof-of-principle randomized clinical study","volume":"48","author":"Apatzidou","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Clin. Periodontol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1391","DOI":"10.1111\/jcpe.13368","article-title":"Periodontal regeneration using a xenogeneic bone substitute seeded with autologous periodontal ligament-derived mesenchymal stem cells: A 12-month quasi-randomized controlled pilot clinical trial","volume":"47","author":"Sanchez","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clin. Periodontol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.1111\/jre.12728","article-title":"Regenerative potential of cultured gingival fibroblasts in treatment of periodontal intrabony defects (randomized clinical and biochemical trial)","volume":"55","author":"Ezzatt","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Periodontal Res."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"306","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0040-1709955","article-title":"Periodontal Ligament Cell Sheets and RGD-Modified Chitosan Improved Regeneration in the Horizontal Periodontal Defect Model","volume":"14","author":"Amir","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. J. Dent."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"An, N., Yan, X., Qiu, Q., Zhang, Z., Zhang, X., Zheng, B., Zhao, Z., Guo, J., and Liu, Y. (2024). Human periodontal ligament stem cell sheets activated by graphene oxide quantum dots repair periodontal bone defects by promoting mitochondrial dynamics dependent osteogenic differentiation. J. Nanobiotechnol., 22.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12951-024-02422-7"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"456","DOI":"10.1002\/JPER.23-0246","article-title":"Local application of gingiva-derived mesenchymal stem cells on experimental periodontitis in rats","volume":"95","author":"Balaban","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Periodontol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2300328","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.202300328","article-title":"Biomimetic Periodontal Ligament Transplantation Activated by Gold Nanoparticles Protects Alveolar Bone","volume":"12","author":"Zong","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv. Healthc. Mater."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chang, Y.T., Lai, C.C., and Lin, D.J. (2023). Collagen Scaffolds Laden with Human Periodontal Ligament Fibroblasts Promote Periodontal Regeneration in SD Rat Model. Polymers, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym15122649"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1961","DOI":"10.1021\/acsbiomaterials.2c01440","article-title":"Potential of an Aligned Porous Hydrogel Scaffold Combined with Periodontal Ligament Stem Cells or Gingival Mesenchymal Stem Cells to Promote Tissue Regeneration in Rat Periodontal Defects","volume":"9","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACS Biomater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fraser, D., and Benoit, D. (2022). Dual peptide-functionalized hydrogels differentially control periodontal cell function and promote tissue regeneration. Biomater. Adv., 141.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bioadv.2022.213093"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaay6853","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.aay6853","article-title":"An engineered cell-laden adhesive hydrogel promotes craniofacial bone tissue regeneration in rats","volume":"12","author":"Sarrion","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2202169","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.202202169","article-title":"Biomimetic Peridontium Patches for Functional Periodontal Regeneration","volume":"12","author":"Ma","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv. Healthc. Mater."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Miao, G., Liang, L., Li, W., Ma, C., Pan, Y., Zhao, H., Zhang, Q., Xiao, Y., and Yang, X. (2023). 3D Bioprinting of a Bioactive Composite Scaffold for Cell Delivery in Periodontal Tissue Regeneration. Biomolecules, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/biom13071062"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2205041","DOI":"10.1002\/advs.202205041","article-title":"A 3D-Bioprinted Functional Module Based on Decellularized Extracellular Matrix Bioink for Periodontal Regeneration","volume":"10","author":"Yang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv. Sci."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, U.L., Yun, S., Cao, H.L., Ahn, G., Shim, J.H., Woo, S.H., and Choung, P.H. (2021). Bioprinting on 3D Printed Titanium Scaffolds for Periodontal Ligament Regeneration. Cells, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells10061337"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23752","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.0c05311","article-title":"Extracellular Matrix\/Amorphous Magnesium Phosphate Bioink for 3D Bioprinting of Craniomaxillofacial Bone Tissue","volume":"12","author":"Dubey","year":"2020","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, Y., Guo, B., Zhang, Y., Bao, X., Li, D., and Lin, J. (2025). Injectable hypoxia-preconditioned human exfoliated deciduous teeth stem cells encapsulated within GelMA-AMP microspheres for bone regeneration in periodontitis. Colloids Surf. B Biointerfaces, 247.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.colsurfb.2024.114452"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2301366","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.202301366","article-title":"CGRP-Loaded Porous Microspheres Protect BMSCs for Alveolar Bone Regeneration in the Periodontitis Microenvironment","volume":"12","author":"Luo","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv. Healthc. Mater."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, L., Zhang, Y., Wang, M., Zhou, J., Zhang, Q., Yang, W., Li, Y., and Yan, F. (2021). Gold Nanoparticles Combined Human beta-Defensin 3 Gene-Modified Human Periodontal Ligament Cells Alleviate Periodontal Destruction via the p38 MAPK Pathway. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2021.631191"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129703","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2021.129703","article-title":"PLGA hybrid porous microspheres as human periodontal ligament stem cell delivery carriers for periodontal regeneration","volume":"420","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dziedzic, D.S.M., Mogharbel, B.F., Irioda, A.C., Stricker, P.E.F., Perussolo, M.C., Franco, C.R.C., Chang, H.W., Abdelwahid, E., and de Carvalho, K.A.T. (2021). Adipose-Derived Stromal Cells and Mineralized Extracellular Matrix Delivery by a Human Decellularized Amniotic Membrane in Periodontal Tissue Engineering. Membranes, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/membranes11080606"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"204","DOI":"10.1002\/jbm.a.36555","article-title":"Electroactive graphene oxide-incorporated collagen assisting vascularization for cardiac tissue engineering","volume":"107","author":"Norahan","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Mater. Res. A"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Katrilaka, C., Karipidou, N., Petrou, N., Manglaris, C., Katrilakas, G., Tzavellas, A.N., Pitou, M., Tsiridis, E.E., Choli-Papadopoulou, T., and Aggeli, A. (2023). Freeze-Drying Process for the Fabrication of Collagen-Based Sponges as Medical Devices in Biomedical Engineering. Materials, 16.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202305.2064.v1"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1236","DOI":"10.1111\/aor.14976","article-title":"Advancements in Bone Tissue Engineering: A Comprehensive Review of Biomaterial Scaffolds and Freeze-Drying Techniques from Perspective Global and Future Research","volume":"49","author":"Angraini","year":"2025","journal-title":"Artif. Organs"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Adachi, T., Miyamoto, N., Imamura, H., Yamamoto, T., Marin, E., Zhu, W., Kobara, M., Sowa, Y., Tahara, Y., and Kanamura, N. (2022). Three-Dimensional Culture of Cartilage Tissue on Nanogel-Cross-Linked Porous Freeze-Dried Gel Scaffold for Regenerative Cartilage Therapy: A Vibrational Spectroscopy Evaluation. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23158099"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vercimakova, K., Karbowniczek, J., Sedlar, M., Stachewicz, U., and Vojtova, L. (2024). The role of glycerol in manufacturing freeze-dried chitosan and cellulose foams for mechanically stable scaffolds in skin tissue engineering. Int. J. Biol. Macromol., 275.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2024.133602"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1598","DOI":"10.1021\/acsbiomaterials.4c01601","article-title":"Freeze-Dried Porous Collagen Scaffolds for the Repair of Volumetric Muscle Loss Injuries","volume":"11","author":"Basurto","year":"2025","journal-title":"ACS Biomater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1007\/s10561-021-09931-x","article-title":"Potential of a novel scaffold composed of human platelet lysate and fibrin for human corneal endothelial cells","volume":"23","author":"Mishan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cell Tissue Bank."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"252","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actbio.2022.12.011","article-title":"Three-dimensional highly porous hydrogel scaffold for neural circuit dissection and modulation","volume":"157","author":"Yan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Acta Biomater."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1177","DOI":"10.1093\/biolre\/ioac160","article-title":"Advanced bioengineering of female germ cells to preserve fertility","volume":"107","author":"Ghorbani","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biol. Reprod."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2403741","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.202403741","article-title":"Emerging Functional Porous Scaffolds for Liver Tissue Engineering","volume":"14","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv. Healthc. Mater."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"485","DOI":"10.1089\/ten.teb.2012.0437","article-title":"Three-dimensional scaffolds for tissue engineering applications: Role of porosity and pore size","volume":"19","author":"Loh","year":"2013","journal-title":"Tissue Eng. Part. B Rev."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1007\/5584_2018_249","article-title":"Mesenchymal Stem Cells and Calcium Phosphate Bioceramics: Implications in Periodontal Bone Regeneration","volume":"1107","author":"Millan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Adv. Exp. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_104","first-page":"197","article-title":"Structural and biological engineering of 3D hydrogels for wound healing","volume":"24","author":"Norahan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Bioact. Mater."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mishchenko, O., Yanovska, A., Sulaieva, O., Moskalenko, R., Pernakov, M., Husak, Y., Korniienko, V., Deineka, V., Kosinov, O., and Varakuta, O. (2023). From Synthesis to Clinical Trial: Novel Bioinductive Calcium Deficient HA\/beta-TCP Bone Grafting Nanomaterial. Nanomaterials, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/nano13121876"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1016\/j.reth.2019.12.011","article-title":"Mesenchymal stem cell-based tissue regeneration therapies for periodontitis","volume":"14","author":"Ouchi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Regen. Ther."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2209466","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.202209466","article-title":"Stem Cell-Niche Engineering via Multifunctional Hydrogel Potentiates Stem Cell Therapies for Inflammatory Bone Loss","volume":"33","author":"Li","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"372","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tibtech.2018.01.008","article-title":"Discovering Cell-Adhesion Peptides in Tissue Engineering: Beyond RGD","volume":"36","author":"Huettner","year":"2018","journal-title":"Trends Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1132","DOI":"10.1021\/acsbiomaterials.2c00730","article-title":"Collagen-Based Biomaterials for Tissue Engineering","volume":"9","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACS Biomater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8469012","DOI":"10.1155\/2019\/8469012","article-title":"Spontaneously Formed Spheroids from Mouse Compact Bone-Derived Cells Retain Highly Potent Stem Cells with Enhanced Differentiation Capability","volume":"2019","author":"Chen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Stem Cells Int."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Horie, M., Yamaguchi, Y., Saito, A., Nagase, T., Lizio, M., Itoh, M., Kawaji, H., Lassmann, T., Carninci, P., and Forrest, A.R. (2016). Transcriptome analysis of periodontitis-associated fibroblasts by CAGE sequencing identified DLX5 and RUNX2 long variant as novel regulators involved in periodontitis. Sci. Rep., 6.","DOI":"10.1038\/srep33666"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Garimella, A., Ghosh, S.B., and Bandyopadhyay-Ghosh, S. (2024). Biomaterials for bone tissue engineering: Achievements to date and future directions. Biomed. Mater., 20.","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-605X\/ad967c"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Santos, M.S., Dos Santos, A.B., and Carvalho, M.S. (2023). New Insights in Hydrogels for Periodontal Regeneration. J. Funct. Biomater., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/jfb14110545"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Holly, D., Klein, M., Mazreku, M., Zamborsky, R., Polak, S., Danisovic, L., and Csobonyeiova, M. (2021). Stem Cells and Their Derivatives-Implications for Alveolar Bone Regeneration: A Comprehensive Review. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms222111746"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1093\/toxsci\/kfy235","article-title":"Systematic Assessment of the Toxicity and Potential Mechanism of Graphene Derivatives In Vitro and In Vivo","volume":"167","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"Toxicol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"922","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msec.2015.12.087","article-title":"Role of pore size and morphology in musculo-skeletal tissue regeneration","volume":"61","author":"Perez","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Eng. C Mater. Biol. Appl."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1038\/ijos.2014.62","article-title":"Counter-regulatory phosphatases TNAP and NPP1 temporally regulate tooth root cementogenesis","volume":"7","author":"Zweifler","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Oral Sci."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4039","DOI":"10.1021\/acsbiomaterials.1c00438","article-title":"Functionalized Porous Hydroxyapatite Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering Applications: A Focused Review","volume":"8","author":"Bhat","year":"2022","journal-title":"ACS Biomater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actbio.2015.10.039","article-title":"Mineral particles modulate osteo-chondrogenic differentiation of embryonic stem cell aggregates","volume":"29","author":"Wang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Acta Biomater."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e372","DOI":"10.1038\/am.2017.33","article-title":"Tough, self-healable and tissue-adhesive hydrogel with tunable multifunctionality","volume":"9","author":"Han","year":"2017","journal-title":"NPG Asia Mater."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Saini, G., Segaran, N., Mayer, J.L., Saini, A., Albadawi, H., and Oklu, R. (2021). Applications of 3D Bioprinting in Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine. J. Clin. Med., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm10214966"},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"986","DOI":"10.1089\/scd.2019.0012","article-title":"Dental Follicle Stem Cells: Tissue Engineering and Immunomodulation","volume":"28","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Stem Cells Dev."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shao, H., Ke, X., Liu, A., Sun, M., He, Y., Yang, X., Fu, J., Liu, Y., Zhang, L., and Yang, G. (2017). Bone regeneration in 3D printing bioactive ceramic scaffolds with improved tissue\/material interface pore architecture in thin-wall bone defect. Biofabrication, 9.","DOI":"10.1088\/1758-5090\/aa663c"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"787","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tibtech.2018.03.003","article-title":"Organ-Derived Decellularized Extracellular Matrix: A Game Changer for Bioink Manufacturing?","volume":"36","author":"Choudhury","year":"2018","journal-title":"Trends Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4779","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.nanolett.6b00636","article-title":"Two-Dimensional Magnesium Phosphate Nanosheets Form Highly Thixotropic Gels That Up-Regulate Bone Formation","volume":"16","author":"Laurenti","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nano Lett."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20230078","DOI":"10.1002\/EXP.20230078","article-title":"Bioactive scaffolds for tissue engineering: A review of decellularized extracellular matrix applications and innovations","volume":"5","author":"Liu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Exploration"},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1957","DOI":"10.1039\/D3NA00851G","article-title":"Recent advances of nanoparticles on bone tissue engineering and bone cells","volume":"6","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nanoscale Adv."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"825","DOI":"10.1007\/s42242-024-00316-z","article-title":"Biofabrication and biomanufacturing in Ireland and the UK","volume":"7","author":"Murphy","year":"2024","journal-title":"Bio-Des. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2864","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0400164101","article-title":"Engineering biological structures of prescribed shape using self-assembling multicellular systems","volume":"101","author":"Jakab","year":"2004","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"320","DOI":"10.1002\/bdrc.20109","article-title":"Developmental biology and tissue engineering","volume":"81","author":"Marga","year":"2007","journal-title":"Birth Defects Res. C Embryo Today"},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1009","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1069210","article-title":"Tissue engineering--current challenges and expanding opportunities","volume":"295","author":"Griffith","year":"2002","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178104","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.95.178104","article-title":"Role of physical mechanisms in biological self-organization","volume":"95","author":"Neagu","year":"2005","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. Lett."},{"key":"ref_133","first-page":"509","article-title":"Three-dimensional tissue constructs built by bioprinting","volume":"43","author":"Jakab","year":"2006","journal-title":"Biorheology"},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.1089\/tea.2007.0173","article-title":"Tissue engineering by self-assembly of cells printed into topologically defined structures","volume":"14","author":"Jakab","year":"2008","journal-title":"Tissue Eng. Part. A"},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2164","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2008.12.084","article-title":"Organ printing: Tissue spheroids as building blocks","volume":"30","author":"Mironov","year":"2009","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2101309","DOI":"10.1002\/admt.202101309","article-title":"Combination of 3D Printing and Electrospinning Techniques for Biofabrication","volume":"7","author":"Yang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Mater. Technol."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sanicola, H.W., Stewart, C.E., Mueller, M., Ahmadi, F., Wang, D., Powell, S.K., Sarkar, K., Cutbush, K., Woodruff, M.A., and Brafman, D.A. (2020). Guidelines for establishing a 3-D printing biofabrication laboratory. Biotechnol. Adv., 45.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biotechadv.2020.107652"},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2304058","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.202304058","article-title":"Biofabrication\u2019s Contribution to the Evolution of Cultured Meat","volume":"13","author":"Albrecht","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv. Healthc. Mater."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Budharaju, H., Sundaramurthi, D., and Sethuraman, S. (2024). Biofabrication & cryopreservation of tissue engineered constructs for on-demand applications. Biofabrication, 16.","DOI":"10.1088\/1758-5090\/ad7906"},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1953","DOI":"10.1002\/jbm.b.34833","article-title":"Bacterially derived medical devices: How commercialization of bacterial nanocellulose and other biofabricated products requires challenging of standard industrial practices","volume":"109","author":"Inselman","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Mater. Res. B Appl. Biomater."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"400","DOI":"10.1039\/D2BM01273A","article-title":"Decellularized ECM hydrogels: Prior use considerations, applications, and opportunities in tissue engineering and biofabrication","volume":"11","author":"Jang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biomater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"290","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tibtech.2024.07.002","article-title":"Sustainable biofabrication: From bioprinting to AI-driven predictive methods","volume":"43","author":"Filippi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Trends Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ivanov, A.A., Danilova, T.I., Kuznetsova, A.V., Popova, O.P., and Yanushevich, O.O. (2023). Decellularized Matrix Induced Spontaneous Odontogenic and Osteogenic Differentiation in Periodontal Cells. Biomolecules, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/biom13010122"},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liang, C., Liao, L., and Tian, W. (2023). Advances Focusing on the Application of Decellularized Extracellular Matrix in Periodontal Regeneration. Biomolecules, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/biom13040673"},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1902953","DOI":"10.1002\/advs.201902953","article-title":"Advances in Hybrid Fabrication toward Hierarchical Tissue Constructs","volume":"7","author":"Dalton","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adv. Sci."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25313","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.3c02279","article-title":"Hydrogel-Assisted Double Molding Enables Rapid Replication of Stereolithographic 3D Prints for Engineered Tissue Design","volume":"15","author":"Simmons","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"364","DOI":"10.1111\/jre.12637","article-title":"Changes in characteristics of periodontal ligament stem cells in spheroid culture","volume":"54","author":"Iwasaki","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Periodontal Res."},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yasunaga, M., Ishikawa, H., Tamaoki, S., Maeda, H., and Ohno, J. (2022). Embedded Human Periodontal Ligament Stem Cells Spheroids Enhance Cementogenic Differentiation via Plasminogen Activator Inhibitor 1. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23042340"},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5257","DOI":"10.62347\/PPEI1766","article-title":"Spheroid culture of human periodontal ligament stem cells on agarose enhances stemness and osteogenic differentiation potential","volume":"17","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Am. J. Transl. Res."},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7432","DOI":"10.1039\/D3BM01011B","article-title":"Fluid flow-induced modulation of viability and osteodifferentiation of periodontal ligament stem cell spheroids-on-chip","volume":"11","author":"Mishra","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biomater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1901831","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.201901831","article-title":"Scaffold-Free Bio-3D Printing Using Spheroids as \u201cBio-Inks\u201d for Tissue (Re-)Construction and Drug Response Tests","volume":"9","author":"Murata","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adv. Healthc. Mater."},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1089\/ten.teb.2016.0322","article-title":"Principles of the Kenzan Method for Robotic Cell Spheroid-Based Three-Dimensional Bioprinting","volume":"23","author":"Moldovan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Tissue Eng. Part. B Rev."},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaaw5111","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.aaw5111","article-title":"Aspiration-assisted bioprinting for precise positioning of biologics","volume":"6","author":"Ayan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"LaBarge, W., Morales, A., Pretorius, D., Kahn-Krell, A.M., Kannappan, R., and Zhang, J. (2019). Scaffold-Free Bioprinter Utilizing Layer-By-Layer Printing of Cellular Spheroids. Micromachines, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/mi10090570"},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"753","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-021-21029-2","article-title":"3D bioprinting of high cell-density heterogeneous tissue models through spheroid fusion within self-healing hydrogels","volume":"12","author":"Daly","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cirpj.2023.08.011","article-title":"Conceptual design and development of a progressive cavity pump for extrusion-based additive manufacturing applications","volume":"46","author":"Ugurluoglu","year":"2023","journal-title":"CIRP J. Manuf. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dharmaraj, J.J.J., Navasingh, R.J.H., Krolczyk, G., and Pitchumani, S.V. (2024). Extrusion-Based Bioprinting in a Cost-Effective Bioprinter. Machines, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/machines12080518"},{"key":"ref_158","first-page":"529","article-title":"Development of 3D bioprinting: From printing methods to biomedical applications","volume":"15","author":"Gu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Asian J. Pharm. Sci."},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112532","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isci.2025.112532","article-title":"Advances of 3D bioprinting technology for periodontal tissue regeneration","volume":"28","author":"Chen","year":"2025","journal-title":"iScience"},{"key":"ref_160","first-page":"e82432","article-title":"3D Bioprinting: Shaping the Future of Periodontal Tissue Regeneration and Disease Management","volume":"17","author":"Acharya","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Itoh, M., Nakayama, K., Noguchi, R., Kamohara, K., Furukawa, K., Uchihashi, K., Toda, S., Oyama, J., Node, K., and Morita, S. (2015). Scaffold-Free Tubular Tissues Created by a Bio-3D Printer Undergo Remodeling and Endothelialization when Implanted in Rat Aortae. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0145971"},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Heo, D.N., Ayan, B., Dey, M., Banerjee, D., Wee, H., Lewis, G.S., and Ozbolat, I.T. (2020). Aspiration-assisted bioprinting of co-cultured osteogenic spheroids for bone tissue engineering. Biofabrication, 13.","DOI":"10.1088\/1758-5090\/abc1bf"},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aguilar, I.N., Smith, L.J., Olivos, D.J., Chu, T.G., Kacena, M.A., and Wagner, D.R. (2019). Scaffold-free Bioprinting of Mesenchymal Stem Cells with the Regenova Printer: Optimization of Printing Parameters. Bioprinting, 15.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bprint.2019.e00048"},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ostrovidov, S., Ramalingam, M., Bae, H., Orive, G., Fujie, T., Shi, X., and Kaji, H. (2023). Bioprinting and biomaterials for dental alveolar tissue regeneration. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2023.991821"},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1008","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gendis.2020.11.011","article-title":"Development of a multicellular 3D-bioprinted microtissue model of human periodontal ligament-alveolar bone biointerface: Towards a pre-clinical model of periodontal diseases and personalized periodontal tissue engineering","volume":"9","author":"Vurat","year":"2022","journal-title":"Genes. Dis."},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fisch, P., Holub, M., and Zenobi-Wong, M. (2020). Improved accuracy and precision of bioprinting through progressive cavity pump-controlled extrusion. Biofabrication, 13.","DOI":"10.1101\/2020.01.23.915868"},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wenger, L., Strau\u00df, S., and Hubbuch, J. (2022). Automated and dynamic extrusion pressure adjustment based on real-time flow rate measurements for precise ink dispensing in 3D bioprinting. Bioprinting, 28.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bprint.2022.e00229"},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, M.H., Banerjee, D., Celik, N., and Ozbolat, I.T. (2022). Aspiration-assisted freeform bioprinting of mesenchymal stem cell spheroids within alginate microgels. Biofabrication, 14.","DOI":"10.1088\/1758-5090\/ac4dd8"},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Woods, P., Smith, C., Clark, S., and Habib, A. (2024). Integrating Pneumatic and Thermal Control in 3D Bioprinting for Improved Bio-Ink Handling. Designs, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/designs8040083"},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pazhouhnia, Z., Beheshtizadeh, N., Namini, M.S., and Lotfibakhshaiesh, N. (2022). Portable hand-held bioprinters promote in situ tissue regeneration. Bioeng. Transl. Med., 7.","DOI":"10.1002\/btm2.10307"},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lindner, N., and Blaeser, A. (2022). Scalable Biofabrication: A Perspective on the Current State and Future Potentials of Process Automation in 3D-Bioprinting Applications. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2022.855042"},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5054","DOI":"10.1039\/D2BM00797E","article-title":"A focused review on three-dimensional bioprinting technology for artificial organ fabrication","volume":"10","author":"Panda","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biomater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Arslan-Yildiz, A., El Assal, R., Chen, P., Guven, S., Inci, F., and Demirci, U. (2016). Towards artificial tissue models: Past, present, and future of 3D bioprinting. Biofabrication, 8.","DOI":"10.1088\/1758-5090\/8\/1\/014103"},{"key":"ref_174","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10950","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.chemrev.0c00077","article-title":"Guiding Lights: Tissue Bioprinting Using Photoactivated Materials","volume":"120","author":"Lee","year":"2020","journal-title":"Chem. Rev."},{"key":"ref_175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"773","DOI":"10.1038\/nbt.2958","article-title":"3D bioprinting of tissues and organs","volume":"32","author":"Murphy","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_176","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"011310","DOI":"10.1063\/1.5059393","article-title":"Extrusion bioprinting of soft materials: An emerging technique for biological model fabrication","volume":"6","author":"Jiang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Rev."},{"key":"ref_177","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2015.10.057","article-title":"Human in vitro 3D co-culture model to engineer vascularized bone-mimicking tissues combining computational tools and statistical experimental approach","volume":"76","author":"Bersini","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_178","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-2666-1","article-title":"Co-designing electronics with microfluidics for more sustainable cooling","volume":"585","author":"Soleimanzadeh","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_179","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jiang, T., Munguia-Lopez, J.G., Flores-Torres, S., Grant, J., Vijayakumar, S., Leon-Rodriguez, A., and Kinsella, J.M. (2017). Directing the Self-assembly of Tumour Spheroids by Bioprinting Cellular Heterogeneous Models within Alginate\/Gelatin Hydrogels. Sci. Rep., 7.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-04691-9"},{"key":"ref_180","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1168","DOI":"10.1002\/biot.200900004","article-title":"Characterization of cell viability during bioprinting processes","volume":"4","author":"Nair","year":"2009","journal-title":"Biotechnol. J."},{"key":"ref_181","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Davoudinejad, A. (2021). Vat photopolymerization methods in additive manufacturing. Additive Manufacturing, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-818411-0.00007-0"},{"key":"ref_182","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5298","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.chemrev.8b00593","article-title":"Electrospinning and Electrospun Nanofibers: Methods, Materials, and Applications","volume":"119","author":"Xue","year":"2019","journal-title":"Chem. Rev."},{"key":"ref_183","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, F., Zhang, Z., and Guo, W. (2024). The 3-dimensional printing for dental tissue regeneration: The state of the art and future challenges. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2024.1356580"},{"key":"ref_184","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hong, J., Yeo, M., Yang, G.H., and Kim, G. (2019). Cell-Electrospinning and Its Application for Tissue Engineering. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms20246208"},{"key":"ref_185","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yin, B., Dodda, J.M., Wong, S.H.D., Roshan Deen, G., Bate, J.S., Pachauri, A., Shiroud Heidari, B., Kovarik, T., Luo, C.A., and Tsai, S.W. (2025). Smart injectable hydrogels for periodontal regeneration: Recent advancements in biomaterials and biofabrication strategies. Mater. Today Bio, 32.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mtbio.2025.101855"},{"key":"ref_186","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1229","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tibtech.2022.03.009","article-title":"In situ bioprinting: Intraoperative implementation of regenerative medicine","volume":"40","author":"Samandari","year":"2022","journal-title":"Trends Biotechnol."}],"container-title":["Bioengineering"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2306-5354\/12\/11\/1213\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,8]],"date-time":"2025-11-08T05:36:30Z","timestamp":1762580190000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2306-5354\/12\/11\/1213"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,6]]},"references-count":186,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11]]}},"alternative-id":["bioengineering12111213"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/bioengineering12111213","relation":{},"ISSN":["2306-5354"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2306-5354","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,6]]}}}