{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T16:54:15Z","timestamp":1791219255056,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":73,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,18]],"date-time":"2025-11-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1763424000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000001","name":"U.S. National Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["223880"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["223880"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000001","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000738","name":"United States Department of Veterans Affairs","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["RX003582"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RX003582"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000738","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Bioengineering"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Spinal cord injury (SCI) impairs motor function and requires rigorous rehabilitative therapy, motivating the development of approaches that are engaging and customizable. Virtual reality (VR) motor training with augmented sensory feedback (ASF) offers a promising pathway to enhance functional outcomes, yet it remains unclear how ASF modalities affect performance and underlying psychophysiological states in persons with SCI. Five participants with chronic incomplete cervical-level SCI controlled a virtual robotic arm with semi-isometric upper-body contractions while undergoing ASF training with either visual feedback (VF) or combined visual plus haptic feedback (VHF). Motor performance (pathlength, completion time), psychophysiological measures (EEG, EMG, EDA, HR), and perceptual ratings (agency, motivation, utility) were assessed before and after ASF training. VF significantly reduced pathlength (\u221212.5%, p = 0.0011) and lowered EMG amplitude (\u221232.5%, p = 0.0063), suggesting the potential for improved motor performance and neuromuscular efficiency. VHF did not significantly improve performance, but trended toward higher cortical engagement. EEG analyses showed VF significantly decreased alpha and beta activity after training, whereas VHF trended toward mild increases. Regression revealed improved performance was significantly (p &lt; 0.05) associated with changes in alpha power, EMG, EDA, and self-reported motivation. ASF type may differentially shape performance and psychophysiological responses in SCI participants. These preliminary findings suggest VR-based ASF as a potent multidimensional tool for personalizing rehabilitation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bioengineering12111266","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,18]],"date-time":"2025-11-18T16:49:51Z","timestamp":1763484591000},"page":"1266","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Exploratory Investigation of Motor and Psychophysiological Outcomes Following VR-Based Motor Training with Augmented Sensory Feedback for a Pilot Cohort with Spinal Cord Injury"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5261-3031","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Raviraj","family":"Nataraj","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA"},{"name":"Movement Control Rehabilitation (MOCORE) Laboratory, Altorfer Complex, Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mingxiao","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA"},{"name":"Movement Control Rehabilitation (MOCORE) Laboratory, Altorfer Complex, Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA"},{"name":"Spinal Cord Damage Research Center, James J. Peters VA Medical Center, Bronx, NY 10468, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yu","family":"Shi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA"},{"name":"Movement Control Rehabilitation (MOCORE) Laboratory, Altorfer Complex, Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sophie","family":"Dewil","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA"},{"name":"Movement Control Rehabilitation (MOCORE) Laboratory, Altorfer Complex, Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Noam Y.","family":"Harel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Spinal Cord Damage Research Center, James J. Peters VA Medical Center, Bronx, NY 10468, USA"},{"name":"Departments of Neurology and Rehabilitation & Human Performance, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lili, L., Sunnerhagen, K.S., Rekand, T., and Murphy, M.A. (2024). Participation and autonomy, independence in activities of daily living and upper extremity functioning in individuals with spinal cord injury. Sci. Rep., 14.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-59862-2"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"563","DOI":"10.1097\/WCO.0b013e3283314b11","article-title":"Motor rehabilitation after stroke, traumatic brain, and spinal cord injury: Common denominators within recent clinical trials","volume":"22","author":"Dobkin","year":"2009","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"526","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.sc.3101638","article-title":"Survey of the needs of patients with spinal cord injury: Impact and priority for improvement in hand function in tetraplegics","volume":"42","author":"Snoek","year":"2004","journal-title":"Spinal Cord"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xiong, J., Wang, J.-T., Lin, S., and Xie, B.-Y. (2025). Advances in hemiplegia rehabilitation: Modern therapeutic interventions to enhance activities of daily living. Front. Neurol., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2025.1555990"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2017.01.013","article-title":"A meta-analysis and systematic literature review of virtual reality rehabilitation programs","volume":"70","author":"Howard","year":"2017","journal-title":"Comput. Hum. Behav."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"927","DOI":"10.31616\/asj.2018.12.5.927","article-title":"Efficacy of virtual reality in upper limb rehabilitation in patients with spinal cord injury: A pilot randomized controlled trial","volume":"12","author":"Prasad","year":"2018","journal-title":"Asian Spine J."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-0003-1-10","article-title":"Motor rehabilitation using virtual reality","volume":"1","author":"Sveistrup","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Neuroeng. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.3758\/s13423-012-0333-8","article-title":"Augmented visual, auditory, haptic, and multimodal feedback in motor learning: A review","volume":"20","author":"Sigrist","year":"2013","journal-title":"Psychon. Bull. Rev."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sanford, S., Collins, B., Liu, M., Dewil, S., and Nataraj, R. (2022). Investigating features in augmented visual feedback for virtual reality rehabilitation of upper-extremity function through isometric muscle control. Front. Virtual Real., 3.","DOI":"10.3389\/frvir.2022.943693"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, M., Wilder, S., Sanford, S., Glassen, M., Dewil, S., Saleh, S., and Nataraj, R. (2023). Augmented feedback modes during functional grasp training with an intelligent glove and virtual reality for persons with traumatic brain injury. Front. Robot. AI, 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/frobt.2023.1230086"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1007\/s12193-023-00406-9","article-title":"The cognitive basis for virtual reality rehabilitation of upper-extremity motor function after neurotraumas","volume":"17","author":"Dewil","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Multimodal User Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1186\/s12984-019-0587-8","article-title":"Learning and transfer of complex motor skills in virtual reality: A perspective review","volume":"16","author":"Levac","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Neuroeng. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103694","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apergo.2022.103694","article-title":"Vibrotactile feedback in virtual motor learning: A systematic review","volume":"101","author":"Islam","year":"2022","journal-title":"Appl. Ergon."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1283","DOI":"10.1093\/cercor\/bhq209","article-title":"Motor Learning with Augmented Feedback: Modality-Dependent Behavioral and Neural Consequences","volume":"21","author":"Ronsse","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cereb. Cortex"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"192","DOI":"10.2174\/1874350101508010192","article-title":"Sonification as concurrent augmented feedback for motor skill learning and the importance of mapping design","volume":"8","author":"Dyer","year":"2015","journal-title":"Open Psychol. J."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"e19695","article-title":"The Role of Augmented Feedback on Motor Learning: A Systematic Review","volume":"13","author":"Moinuddin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fujii, S., Lulic, T., and Chen, J.L. (2016). More feedback is better than less: Learning a novel upper limb joint coordination pattern with augmented auditory feedback. Front. Neurosci., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2016.00251"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1007\/s00221-003-1726-8","article-title":"Governing coordination: Behavioural principles and neural correlates","volume":"154","author":"Carson","year":"2004","journal-title":"Exp. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conb.2007.02.004","article-title":"A common framework for perceptual learning","volume":"17","author":"Seitz","year":"2007","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vastano, R., Costantini, M., Alexander, W.H., and Widerstrom-Noga, E. (2022). Multisensory integration in humans with spinal cord injury. Sci. Rep., 12.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-26678-x"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ionta, S., Villiger, M., Jutzeler, C.R., Freund, P., Curt, A., and Gassert, R. (2016). Spinal cord injury affects the interplay between visual and sensorimotor representations of the body. Sci. Rep., 6.","DOI":"10.1038\/srep20144"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8","article-title":"Cognitive load theory","volume":"Volume 55","author":"Sweller","year":"2011","journal-title":"Psychology of Learning and Motivation"},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"75","article-title":"Does Frequent Augmented Feedback Really Degrade Learning? A meta-analysis","volume":"1","author":"Marschall","year":"2007","journal-title":"Beweg. Und Train."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"342","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaneurol.2023.0033","article-title":"Optimal intensity and duration of walking rehabilitation in patients with chronic stroke: A randomized clinical trial","volume":"80","author":"Boyne","year":"2023","journal-title":"JAMA Neurol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1519\/JSC.0000000000004620","article-title":"Balance Training Under Fatigue: A Randomized Controlled Trial on the Effect of Fatigue on Adaptations to Balance Training","volume":"38","author":"Keller","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Strength Cond. Res."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1863","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apmr.2016.03.022","article-title":"Matching task difficulty to patient ability during task practice improves upper extremity motor skill after stroke: A proof-of-concept study","volume":"97","author":"Woodbury","year":"2016","journal-title":"Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"212","DOI":"10.3200\/JMBR.36.2.212-224","article-title":"Challenge point: A framework for conceptualizing the effects of various practice conditions in motor learning","volume":"36","author":"Guadagnoli","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Mot. Behav."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Afrash, S., Saemi, E., Gong, A., and Doustan, M. (2023). Neurofeedback training and motor learning: The enhanced sensorimotor rhythm protocol is better or the suppressed alpha or the suppressed mu?. BMC Sports Sci. Med. Rehabil., 15.","DOI":"10.1186\/s13102-023-00706-3"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1177\/1534582304267187","article-title":"The Functional Architecture of Human Empathy","volume":"3","author":"Decety","year":"2004","journal-title":"Behav. Cogn. Neurosci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Frey, J., Daniel, M., Castet, J., Hachet, M., and Lotte, F. (2016, January 7\u201312). Framework for Electroencephalography-based Evaluation of User Experience. Proceedings of the 2016 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, San Jose, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/2858036.2858525"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e64812","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.64812","article-title":"Decoding subjective emotional arousal from EEG during an immersive virtual reality experience","volume":"10","author":"Hofmann","year":"2021","journal-title":"elife"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nasri, M. (2025, January 16\u201319). Towards Intelligent VR Training: A Physiological Adaptation Framework for Cognitive Load and Stress Detection. Proceedings of the 33rd ACM Conference on User Modeling, Adaptation and Personalization, New York, NY, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/3699682.3727575"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tian, F., Hua, M., Zhang, W., Li, Y., and Yang, X. (2021). Emotional arousal in 2D versus 3D virtual reality environments. PLoS ONE, 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0256211"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Saha, S., Dobbins, C., Gupta, A., and Dey, A. (2024). Machine learning based classification of presence utilizing psychophysiological signals in immersive virtual environments. Sci. Rep., 14.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-72376-1"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1251\/bpo115","article-title":"Techniques of EMG signal analysis: Detection, processing, classification and applications","volume":"8","author":"Reaz","year":"2006","journal-title":"Biol. Proced. Online"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moore, J.W. (2016). What Is the Sense of Agency and Why Does it Matter?. Front. Psychol., 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2016.01272"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1110","DOI":"10.1002\/mds.25408","article-title":"Action-effect binding is decreased in motor conversion disorder: Implications for sense of agency: Action Effect Binding in Conversion Disorder","volume":"28","author":"Kranick","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mov. Disord."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"364","DOI":"10.1080\/13546805.2010.546074","article-title":"Ketamine administration in healthy volunteers reproduces aberrant agency experiences associated with schizophrenia","volume":"16","author":"Moore","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cogn. Neuropsychiatry"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ziadeh, H., Gulyas, D., Nielsen, L.D., Lehmann, S., Nielsen, T.B., Kjeldsen, T.K.K., Hougaard, B.I., Jochumsen, M., and Knoche, H. (2021). \u2018Mine works better\u2019: Examining the influence of embodiment in virtual reality on the sense of agency during a binary motor imagery task with a brain-computer interface. Front. Psychol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2021.806424"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Girondini, M., Mariano, M., Stanco, G., Gallace, A., and Zapparoli, L. (2025). Human bodies in virtual worlds: A systematic review of implicit sense of agency and ownership measured in immersive virtual reality environments. Front. Hum. Neurosci., 19.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2025.1553574"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nataraj, R., Sanford, S., Shah, A., and Liu, M. (2020). Agency and performance of reach-to-grasp with modified control of a virtual hand: Implications for rehabilitation. Front. Hum. Neurosci., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2020.00126"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nataraj, R., Hollinger, D., Liu, M., and Shah, A. (2020). Disproportionate positive feedback facilitates sense of agency and performance for a reaching movement task with a virtual hand. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0233175"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nataraj, R., and Sanford, S. (2021). Control modification of grasp force covaries agency and performance on rigid and compliant surfaces. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2020.574006"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aoyagi, K., Wen, W., An, Q., Hamasaki, S., Yamakawa, H., Tamura, Y., Yamashita, A., and Asama, H. (2019, January 23\u201327). Improvement of Sense of Agency During Upper-Limb Movement for Motor Rehabilitation Using Virtual Reality. Proceedings of the 2019 41st Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC), Berlin, Germany.","DOI":"10.1109\/EMBC.2019.8856796"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, W., Zhu, G., Lu, Y., Wu, J., Fu, Z., Tang, J., Zhang, G., and Xu, D. (2024). The relationship between rehabilitation motivation and upper limb motor function in stroke patients. Front. Neurol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2024.1390811"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Grevet, E., Forge, K., Tadiello, S., Izac, M., Amadieu, F., Brunel, L., Pillette, L., Py, J., Gasq, D., and Jeunet-Kelway, C. (2023). Modeling the acceptability of BCIs for motor rehabilitation after stroke: A large scale study on the general public. Front. Neuroergonomics, 3.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnrgo.2022.1082901"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shi, Y., Liu, M., Dewil, S., Harel, N.Y., Sanford, S., and Nataraj, R. (2024, January 26\u201328). Augmented Sensory Feedback during Training of Upper Extremity Function in Virtual Reality. Proceedings of the 2024 IEEE 37th International Symposium on Computer-Based Medical Systems (CBMS), Guadalajara, Mexico. Available online: https:\/\/ieeexplore.ieee.org\/abstract\/document\/10600863\/.","DOI":"10.1109\/CBMS61543.2024.00046"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, M., Wilder, S., Sanford, S., Saleh, S., Harel, N.Y., and Nataraj, R. (2021). Training with agency-inspired feedback from an instrumented glove to improve functional grasp performance. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21041173"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, E.B., Kim, S., and Lee, O. (2021). Upper limb rehabilitation tools in virtual reality based on haptic and 3D spatial recognition analysis: A pilot study. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21082790"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tremmel, C., Herff, C., Sato, T., Rechowicz, K., Yamani, Y., and Krusienski, D.J. (2019). Estimating cognitive workload in an interactive virtual reality environment using EEG. Front. Hum. Neurosci., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2019.00401"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sun, J., Liu, G., Sun, Y., Lin, K., Zhou, Z., and Cai, J. (2022). Application of surface electromyography in exercise fatigue: A review. Front. Syst. Neurosci., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnsys.2022.893275"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yu, X., Lu, J., Liu, W., Cheng, Z., and Xiao, G. (2024). Exploring physiological stress response evoked by passive translational acceleration in healthy adults: A pilot study utilizing electrodermal activity and heart rate variability measurements. Sci. Rep., 14.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-61656-5"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mar\u00edn-Morales, J., Higuera-Trujillo, J.L., Guixeres, J., Llinares, C., Alca\u00f1iz, M., and Valenza, G. (2021). Heart rate variability analysis for the assessment of immersive emotional arousal using virtual reality: Comparing real and virtual scenarios. PLoS ONE, 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0254098"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kalckert, A., and Ehrsson, H.H. (2012). Moving a rubber hand that feels like your own: A dissociation of ownership and agency. Front. Hum. Neurosci., 6.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2012.00040"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1186\/s12984-024-01441-7","article-title":"The influence of scaffolding on intrinsic motivation and autonomous adherence to a game-based, sparsely supervised home rehabilitation program for people with upper extremity hemiparesis due to stroke. A randomized controlled trial","volume":"21","author":"Fluet","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Neuroeng. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.2307\/30036540","article-title":"User acceptance of information technology: Toward a unified view","volume":"27","author":"Venkatesh","year":"2003","journal-title":"MIS Q."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1038\/sc.2015.137","article-title":"Development and validation of a computerized algorithm for International Standards for Neurological Classification of Spinal Cord Injury (ISNCSCI)","volume":"54","author":"Walden","year":"2016","journal-title":"Spinal Cord"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Azeem, K., and Zemkov\u00e1, E. (2022). Effects of isometric and isotonic training on health-related fitness components in young adults. Appl. Sci., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/app12178682"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2013.2281595","article-title":"Real-time, simultaneous myoelectric control using force and position-based training paradigms","volume":"61","author":"Ameri","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Parger, M., Mueller, J.H., Schmalstieg, D., and Steinberger, M. (2018, January 9\u201311). Human upper-body inverse kinematics for increased embodiment in consumer-grade virtual reality. Proceedings of the 24th ACM Symposium on Virtual Reality Software and Technology, Tokyo, Japan.","DOI":"10.1145\/3281505.3281529"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1123\/jab.13.2.135","article-title":"The use of surface electromyography in biomechanics","volume":"13","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Appl. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103891","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ridd.2021.103891","article-title":"Longitudinal cognitive rehabilitation applied with eye-tracker for patients with Rett Syndrome","volume":"111","author":"Fabio","year":"2021","journal-title":"Res. Dev. Disabil."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1382","DOI":"10.3758\/s13423-015-0999-9","article-title":"Optimizing performance through intrinsic motivation and attention for learning: The OPTIMAL theory of motor learning","volume":"23","author":"Wulf","year":"2016","journal-title":"Psychon. Bull. Rev."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gaitpost.2020.10.027","article-title":"Characterization of standing balance after incomplete spinal cord injury: Alteration in integration of sensory information in ambulatory individuals","volume":"83","author":"Noamani","year":"2021","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, M., Wilder, S., Sanford, S., Dewil, S., Harel, N., and Nataraj, R. (2023, January 12\u201314). Multimodal Augmented Feedback for Functional Grasp Training Using a Smart Glove and Virtual Reality for Persons with Spinal Cord Injury. Proceedings of the 2023 9th International Conference on Virtual Reality (ICVR), Xianyang, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICVR57957.2023.10169674"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s00421-025-05768-4","article-title":"Neuromuscular activation following anti-movement and dynamic core training: A randomized controlled comparative study","volume":"125","author":"Cinarli","year":"2025","journal-title":"Eur. J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bandini, V., Carpinella, I., Marzegan, A., Jonsdottir, J., Frigo, C.A., Avanzino, L., Pelosin, E., Ferrarin, M., and Lencioni, T. (2023). Surface-electromyography-based co-contraction index for monitoring upper limb improvements in post-stroke rehabilitation: A pilot randomized controlled trial secondary analysis. Sensors, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/s23177320"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"036005","DOI":"10.1088\/1741-2560\/8\/3\/036005","article-title":"Closing the sensorimotor loop: Haptic feedback facilitates decoding of motor imagery","volume":"8","author":"Peters","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Neural Eng."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Boucsein, W. (2012). Electrodermal Activity, Springer Science & Business Media. Available online: https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?hl=en&lr=&id=6N6rnOEZEEoC&oi=fnd&pg=PR3&dq=Boucsein,+W.+(2012).+Electrodermal+Activity+(2nd+ed.)&ots=B4mzswMKKB&sig=9WAIlM8uvtogWdFtgCjh2E86xuI.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4614-1126-0"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1080\/00222895.2025.2496153","article-title":"Effects of Motor Imagery on Skin Conductance and Pelvic Floor Sensorimotor Condition: A Randomised Controlled Trial","volume":"57","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Mot. Behav."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Krasovsky, T. (2022). Cognition, emotion, and movement in the context of rehabilitation. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph192114532"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-0003-4-8","article-title":"Human-robot cooperative movement training: Learning a novel sensory motor transformation during walking with robotic assistance-as-needed","volume":"4","author":"Emken","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Neuroeng. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105415","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105415","article-title":"Mobile Learning Significantly Enhances Student Learning Gains: A Meta-Analysis and Research Synthesis","volume":"238","author":"Burgos","year":"2025","journal-title":"Comput. Educ."}],"container-title":["Bioengineering"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2306-5354\/12\/11\/1266\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,21]],"date-time":"2025-11-21T05:13:05Z","timestamp":1763701985000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2306-5354\/12\/11\/1266"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,18]]},"references-count":73,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11]]}},"alternative-id":["bioengineering12111266"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/bioengineering12111266","relation":{},"ISSN":["2306-5354"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2306-5354","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,18]]}}}