{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,15]],"date-time":"2025-12-15T10:25:12Z","timestamp":1765794312317,"version":"3.48.0"},"reference-count":60,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,13]],"date-time":"2025-12-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1765584000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000001","name":"NSF CMMI","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2338676"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2338676"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000001","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Bioengineering"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study examines the impact of vocal fold (VF) lesions located on the superior surface on glottal airflow dynamics and tissue oscillatory behaviors using biomechanical simulations of a two-layered realistic VF model. It is hypothesized that morphological changes in the VFs due to the presence of a lesion cause changes in tissue elasticity and rheological properties, contributing to dysphonia. Previous research has lacked the integration of lesions in computational simulations of anatomically accurate larynx-VF models to explore their effects on phonation and contribution to voice disorders. Addressing the current gap in literature, this paper considers a computational model of a two-layered VF structure incorporating a lesion that represents a hemorrhagic polyp. A three-dimensional, subject-specific, multilayered geometry of VFs is constructed based on STL files derived from a human larynx CT scan, and a fluid\u2013structure interaction (FSI) methodology is employed to simulate the coupling of glottal airflow and VF tissue dynamics. To evaluate the effects of the lesion\u2019s presence, two FSI models, one with a lesion embedded in the cover layer and one without, are simulated and compared. Analysis of airflow dynamics and tissue vibrational patterns between these two models is used to determine the impact of the lesion on the biomechanical characteristics of phonation. The polyp is found to slightly increase airflow resistance through the glottis and disrupt vibratory symmetry by decreasing the vibration frequency of the affected fold, leading to weaker and less rhythmic oscillations. The results also indicate that the lesion increases tissue stress in the affected fold, which agrees with clinical observations. While quantitative ranges depend on lesion size and tissue properties, these consistent and physically meaningful trends highlight the biomechanical mechanisms by which lesions influence phonation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bioengineering12121360","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,15]],"date-time":"2025-12-15T09:36:39Z","timestamp":1765791399000},"page":"1360","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Discovering the Effects of Superior-Surface Vocal Fold Lesions via Fluid\u2013Structure Interaction Analysis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-2887-6490","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Manoela","family":"Neves","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, School of Science and Engineering, Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, PA 15219, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-6255-4388","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anitha","family":"Niyingenera","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, School of Science and Engineering, Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, PA 15219, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-3805-2372","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Norah","family":"Delaney","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, School of Science and Engineering, Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, PA 15219, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0927-8896","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rana","family":"Zakerzadeh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, School of Science and Engineering, Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, PA 15219, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"001","article-title":"Current Understanding and Future Directions for Vocal Fold Mechanobiology","volume":"1","author":"Li","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. 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