{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,3]],"date-time":"2026-05-03T05:30:00Z","timestamp":1777786200807,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":36,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,28]],"date-time":"2025-12-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1766880000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Bioengineering"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Tricalcium phosphate (TCP) bioceramics, available as \u03b1- and \u03b2-polymorphs, are frequently employed in the production of three-dimensionally (3D) printed bone scaffolds. Although hydrothermal immersion processing (HP) and sintering (S) are commonly adopted as post-printing techniques for bioceramics, a comprehensive comparative analysis of their effects on the osteogenic performance of \u03b1- and \u03b2-polymorphs in vivo remains inadequately investigated. In this study, \u03b1-TCP and \u03b2-TCP scaffolds were fabricated via direct ink writing and subjected to hydrothermal immersion processing (\u03b1-TCP\/HP) and sintering (\u03b2-TCP\/S) prior to implantation in n = 12 skeletally mature sheep (n = 1 scaffold per group per animal), and the outcome variables were evaluated at 3 and 12 weeks postoperatively (n = 6 sheep per time point). The quantitative results showed no significant differences in bone deposition or scaffold resorption at 3 weeks postoperatively (p = 0.618 and p = 0.898, respectively). However, at 12 weeks, there was a significant increase in osteogenesis and scaffold resorption in the \u03b2-TCP\/S cohort relative to the \u03b1-TCP\/HP counterparts (p &lt; 0.001 and p = 0.004, respectively). \u03b2-TCP scaffolds subjected to post-print sintering exhibited superior osteoconductive and resorptive profiles compared to hydrothermal immersion-processed \u03b1-TCP scaffolds over the 12-week healing period.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bioengineering13010034","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,29]],"date-time":"2025-12-29T06:25:51Z","timestamp":1766989551000},"page":"34","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Impact of 3D-Printed Tricalcium Phosphate Scaffold Polymorphism and Post-Processing Variations on Bone Regenerative Outcomes"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5935-997X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nicholas Jose","family":"Iglesias","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"DeWitt Daughtry Family Department of Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-7107-3235","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sara E.","family":"Munkwitz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-2469-2587","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hana","family":"Shah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA"},{"name":"Florida International University Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine, Miami, FL 33199, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Savanah R.","family":"Sturm","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-0941-6605","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nicholas A.","family":"Mirsky","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-7012-0920","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Adriana I.","family":"Sandino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ricky","family":"Almada","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2739-0339","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vasudev Vivekanand","family":"Nayak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA"},{"name":"Dr. John T. Macdonald Foundation Biomedical Nanotechnology Institute (BioNIUM), University of Miami, Miami, FL 33136, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1458-6527","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lukasz","family":"Witek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biomaterials and Regenerative Biology Division, NYU College of Dentistry, New York, NY 10010, USA"},{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, NYU Tandon School of Engineering, Brooklyn, NY 11201, USA"},{"name":"Hansj\u00f6rg Wyss Department of Plastic Surgery, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016, USA"},{"name":"Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, NYU College of Dentistry, New York, NY 10010, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Paulo G.","family":"Coelho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA"},{"name":"Dr. John T. Macdonald Foundation Biomedical Nanotechnology Institute (BioNIUM), University of Miami, Miami, FL 33136, USA"},{"name":"DeWitt Daughtry Family Department of Surgery, Division of Plastic Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA"},{"name":"Sylvester Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actbio.2022.04.014","article-title":"Personalized 3D printed bone scaffolds: A review","volume":"156","author":"Mirkhalaf","year":"2023","journal-title":"Acta Biomater."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1016\/j.injury.2021.01.043","article-title":"Autologous bone graft: Is it still the gold standard?","volume":"52","author":"Schmidt","year":"2021","journal-title":"Injury"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hou, X., Zhang, L., Zhou, Z., Luo, X., Wang, T., Zhao, X., Lu, B., Chen, F., and Zheng, L. 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