{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]],"date-time":"2026-09-24T23:31:00Z","timestamp":1790292660267,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,12]],"date-time":"2026-01-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1768176000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Craiova, Romania"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Bioengineering"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In fixed orthodontic treatment, brackets are orthodontic attachments bonded to the tooth enamel, and their placement and removal may affect the underlying enamel surface. Enamel degradation is a critical factor for oral health, as it reduces the mechanical strength of teeth and increases susceptibility to caries and erosion. Accurate diagnosis of enamel changes is therefore essential for the evaluation of preventive and restorative treatments. In this study, enamel degradation was investigated via two integrated methods: energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) and surface roughness measurement. The experimental protocol was performed in three stages: before bracket bonding, after bracket removal, and after applying a remineralization treatment. The experimental design included a repeated-measures structure, with stage (baseline, post-debonding, post-remineralization) as the within-tooth factor and bracket type (sapphire vs. metallic) as the between-tooth factor. Given the violation of the variance homogeneity assumption, group comparisons were ultimately performed using Welch ANOVA followed by Games\u2013Howell post hoc tests, with Bonferroni-adjusted values used for pairwise comparisons. The presence of orthodontic brackets can influence enamel mineralization because the bonding and debonding procedures modify the enamel surface microtopography. These procedures can generate microcracks and surface irregularities, which may affect mineral exchange between enamel and the surrounding environment. In our study, bracket removal led to a significant decrease in the mean atomic percentages of Ca (from 32.65% to 16.37% for sapphire) and P (from 16.35% to 8.60% for sapphire), accompanied by a sharp increase in surface roughness. After remineralization, Ca and P levels increased, while roughness decreased. However, neither the mineral content nor the surface topography fully returned to the initial values, indicating that remineralization achieved only a partial recovery of enamel integrity. These findings highlight that the integrated EDS approach and roughness analysis offer a promising descriptive framework for assessing enamel degradation and monitoring the effectiveness of remineralization therapies. The generated mathematical model provides a powerful descriptive framework for the in vitro data obtained, correlating roughness with mineral composition and treatment stage. However, such a high goodness-of-fit (R2 &gt; 0.98) should be interpreted cautiously due to the risk of overfitting. Therefore, rigorous external validation is mandatory before this model can be considered a reliable predictive tool. It also highlights the importance of enamel remineralization therapies after orthodontic treatment, but also the importance of choosing personalized treatment strategies adapted to the enamel type.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bioengineering13010085","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,12]],"date-time":"2026-01-12T10:25:23Z","timestamp":1768213523000},"page":"85","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Integrated Characterization by EDS and Roughness as a Diagnostic Tool for Dental Enamel Degradation: An In Vitro Study"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Cosmin Bogdan","family":"Lics\u0103ndroiu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Doctoral School, University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Craiova, 200349 Craiova, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6535-3152","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mihaela Jana","family":"\u021auculin\u0103","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Endodontics, Faculty of Dental Medicine, University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Craiova, 200349 Craiova, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Petre Costin","family":"M\u0103r\u0103\u0219escu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Dental Prothesis Technology, Faculty of Dental Medicine, University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Craiova, 200349 Craiova, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-5828-7262","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Felicia Ileana","family":"M\u0103r\u0103\u0219escu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dental Medicine, University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Craiova, 200349 Craiova, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cosmin Mihai","family":"Miri\u021boiu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Applied Mechanics and Civil Constructions, Faculty of Mechanics, University of Craiova, 200512 Craiova, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5877-6245","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Raluca Ionela Olaru","family":"Gheorghe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Doctoral School, University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Craiova, 200349 Craiova, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bogdan","family":"Dimitriu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Endodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Medicine and Pharmacy Carol Davila Bucharest, 050474 Bucharest, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maria Cristina","family":"Bezna","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathophysiology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Craiova, 200349 Craiova, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Elena Verona","family":"Lics\u0103ndroiu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ciso Medical Bucharest, B-vd Burebista, No. 1, 031106 Bucharest, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mihaela","family":"Stan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Dental Prothesis Technology, Faculty of Dental Medicine, University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Craiova, 200349 Craiova, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cristian-Marius","family":"Bacanu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Doctoral School, University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Craiova, 200349 Craiova, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-1787-9912","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ionela Teodora","family":"Dasc\u0103lu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dental Medicine, University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Craiova, 200349 Craiova, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"\u0218erb\u0103noiu, D.C., Vartolomei, A.C., Ghiga, D.V., Moldovan, M., Saro\u0219i, C., Petean, I., Boileau, M.J., and P\u0103curar, M. 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