{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,13]],"date-time":"2026-02-13T10:25:30Z","timestamp":1770978330152,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":192,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,13]],"date-time":"2026-02-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1770940800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Bioengineering"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This review develops a materials-to-clinic framework for patient-specific, functionally graded (FG) NiTi shape memory alloy (SMA) rods as a complementary paradigm for scoliosis correction that targets durable alignment with motion preservation. The article synthesizes the thermomechanical basis of NiTi (thermoelastic martensitic transformation, near constant superelastic plateau, and hysteretic damping) while leveraging additive manufacturing (AM) capabilities to spatially program transformation temperatures (e.g., Af), effective stiffness, and geometric inertia along the rod. Consolidated process\u2013structure\u2013property linkages are provided for the PBF-LB, DED, and BJAM routes, together with contamination and composition-control strategies (mitigation of Ni volatilization; management of O\/C uptake; gradient heat treatments) and segment-level quality assurance (DSC mapping, micro-CT, EBSD\/indentation, and bench bending\/torsion in physiologic media). Building on clinical curve classification, the methodology formalizes a grading mask and target moment vector that drive multi-objective optimization of the segmental Af, relative density\/architecture, and cross-section, followed by route-specific build plans and acceptance tolerances. A phenomenological constitutive description provides the forward map from local design variables to temperature-dependent moment\u2013curvature loops for finite element verification and uncertainty control. Surgical handling and activation policies are codified (cold shaping in martensite and controlled intra-\/postoperative warming within tissue-safe bounds), and a translational roadmap is outlined, encompassing prospective calibration of classification-to-design mappings, AM process maps with in situ monitoring, digital twin planning, and long-horizon fatigue\/corrosion protocols. The proposed graded structures provide an adaptive transformation temperature gradient and tunable mechanical response, representing an important design direction toward 3D-printed, patient-specific SMA rods for durable, adjustable, and efficient scoliosis correction.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bioengineering13020216","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,13]],"date-time":"2026-02-13T09:09:19Z","timestamp":1770973759000},"page":"216","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Advancing Scoliosis Treatment with Patient-Specific Functionally Graded NiTi-SMA Rods: Key Considerations and Development Objectives"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0275-1150","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shiva","family":"Mohajerani","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Mechanical, Industrial and Manufacturing Department, The University of Toledo, 2801 Bancroft St., Toledo, OH 43606, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-0336-0406","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alireza","family":"Behvar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mechanical, Industrial and Manufacturing Department, The University of Toledo, 2801 Bancroft St., Toledo, OH 43606, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9829-7305","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Athena","family":"Jalalian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Design, Production, and Management, University of Twente, Drienerlolaan 5, 7522 NB Enschede, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0401-5384","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ahu","family":"Celebi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mechanical, Industrial and Manufacturing Department, The University of Toledo, 2801 Bancroft St., Toledo, OH 43606, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3720-7067","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohammad","family":"Elahinia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mechanical, Industrial and Manufacturing Department, The University of Toledo, 2801 Bancroft St., Toledo, OH 43606, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1007\/s11517-013-1132-8","article-title":"Global geometric torsion estimation in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis","volume":"52","author":"Kadoury","year":"2014","journal-title":"Med. 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