{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,19]],"date-time":"2026-09-19T00:11:43Z","timestamp":1789776703043,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":127,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,27]],"date-time":"2026-02-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1772150400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Connors BWH-MGB Collaborative IGNITE Award"},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000053","name":"The National Eye Institute","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R56EY037692"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R56EY037692"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000053","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000053","name":"The National Eye Institute","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["R01 EY026202"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01 EY026202"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000053","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000053","name":"The National Eye Institute","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["R01 EY035510"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01 EY035510"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000053","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Bioengineering"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are increasingly recognized as programmable bioactive carriers in non-viral gene delivery and adaptable bioengineering platforms. Beyond their roles as natural nanocarriers in intercellular communication, EVs can promote ocular surface repair and retinal neuroprotection with potential for low immunogenicity and high biocompatibility. Bioengineering now enables cargo encapsulation, surface targeting, and integration of EVs with biomaterial platforms to enhance tissue penetration, retention, and precision delivery. The emergence of induced pluripotent stem cell-derived EVs (iMSC-EVs) offers improved batch uniformity and potential for personalized therapy. However, progress hinges on resolving knowledge gaps in ocular EV biology, standardizing isolation and storage, scaling reproducible manufacturing, and executing focused clinical trials. We synthesize the current developments and outline how EVs are moving from biological mediators to engineered therapeutics to accelerate the translation of EV diagnostics and therapeutics for eye diseases.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bioengineering13030275","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,27]],"date-time":"2026-02-27T10:41:02Z","timestamp":1772188862000},"page":"275","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Extracellular Vesicles in Ophthalmology: From Natural Nanocarriers to Engineered Therapeutics"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Christopher","family":"Flores","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Schepens Eye Research Institute of Mass Eye and Ear, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA"},{"name":"Williams College, Williamstown, MA 01267, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fabiana","family":"Mastantuono","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Schepens Eye Research Institute of Mass Eye and Ear, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA"},{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3171-4631","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lu","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Schepens Eye Research Institute of Mass Eye and Ear, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tina B.","family":"McKay","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mass General Brigham Department of Anesthesiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-9586-3830","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Grace M.","family":"Coyne","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Schepens Eye Research Institute of Mass Eye and Ear, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8953-5102","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Brenna","family":"Hefley","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"North Texas Eye Research Institute, University of North Texas Health, Fort Worth, TX 76107, USA"},{"name":"College of Biomedical and Translational Sciences, University of North Texas Health, Fort Worth, TX 76107, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Brenda","family":"Vasini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"North Texas Eye Research Institute, University of North Texas Health, Fort Worth, TX 76107, USA"},{"name":"Department of Family Medicine, Texas College of Osteopathic Medicine, University of North Texas Health, Fort Worth, TX 76107, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8761-3824","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dimitrios","family":"Karamichos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"North Texas Eye Research Institute, University of North Texas Health, Fort Worth, TX 76107, USA"},{"name":"Department of Family Medicine, Texas College of Osteopathic Medicine, University of North Texas Health, Fort Worth, TX 76107, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3264-7194","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Menglu","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Schepens Eye Research Institute of Mass Eye and Ear, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8639","DOI":"10.1007\/s11033-023-08624-w","article-title":"Biological Function of Extracellular Vesicles (EVs): A Review of the Field","volume":"50","author":"Mohammadipoor","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mol. 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