{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T12:45:34Z","timestamp":1785415534203,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":30,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,20]],"date-time":"2026-04-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1776643200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Institute of Health","award":["1R43-NS132623-01"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1R43-NS132623-01"]}]},{"award":["1R43-NS132623-01"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1R43-NS132623-01"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/02hssy432","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Bioengineering"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Optogenetic modulation employs light-sensitive proteins known as opsins to regulate cellular activity. A unique therapeutic application of this technique involves modulating pain perception by selectively targeting neural pathways within the spinal cord. Multi-Characteristic Opsin (MCO) represents an innovative optogenetic actuator capable of activation across a broad spectrum of light wavelengths, exhibiting a slow depolarizing phase that resembles natural photoreceptors. This study examines the current advancements in spinal optogenetic modulation utilizing MCO for pain management. Due to its high sensitivity, MCO facilitates minimally invasive, remotely controlled optogenetic modulation of spinal neurons. This approach enables the regulation of extensive spatial regions, provided the MCO channel receives sufficient light intensity to surpass the activation threshold. Nano-enhanced optical delivery (NOD) successfully transfected spinal neurons with the GAD67-MCO2-mCherry construct, as confirmed by membrane-localized mCherry fluorescence with DAPI-labeled nuclei. Using this platform, 5 Hz spinal optogenetic stimulation produced a significant reduction in formalin-evoked pain behaviors, demonstrating frequency-specific modulation of spinal pain circuits. Neither 2 Hz nor 10 Hz stimulation yielded comparable analgesic effects, underscoring the importance of precise stimulation parameters. The therapeutic impact also depended on transfection efficiency: reducing the fGNR\u2013plasmid concentration diminished MCO expression and weakened the analgesic response. Together, these results show that effective spinal optogenetic pain modulation requires both optimal stimulation frequency and robust gene delivery.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bioengineering13040479","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,20]],"date-time":"2026-04-20T12:01:22Z","timestamp":1776686482000},"page":"479","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Nano-Enhanced Optical Delivery of Multi-Characteristic Opsin Gene for Spinal Optogenetic Modulation of Pain"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Darryl","family":"Narcisse","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Opsin Biotherapeutics, Inc., 1312 Brown Trail, Bedford, TX 76022, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Robert","family":"Benkowski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Opsin Biotherapeutics, Inc., 1312 Brown Trail, Bedford, TX 76022, USA"},{"name":"DesignPlex Biomedical, LLC, 3425 Clayton Rd. E, Fort Worth, TX 76116, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-7513-3158","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Matthew","family":"Dwyer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nanoscope Technologies, LLC, 1624 New York Ave., Arlington, TX 76010, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Samarendra","family":"Mohanty","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Opsin Biotherapeutics, Inc., 1312 Brown Trail, Bedford, TX 76022, USA"},{"name":"Nanoscope Technologies, LLC, 1624 New York Ave., Arlington, TX 76010, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2082","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(21)00393-7","article-title":"Chronic Pain: An Update on Burden, Best Practices, and New Advances","volume":"397","author":"Cohen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2313563","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2023.13563","article-title":"Estimated Rates of Incident and Persistent Chronic Pain Among US Adults, 2019\u20132020","volume":"6","author":"Nahin","year":"2023","journal-title":"JAMA Netw. 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