{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,18]],"date-time":"2026-09-18T05:07:41Z","timestamp":1789708061161,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":38,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,15]],"date-time":"2026-06-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1781481600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Bioengineering"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Aim: This study aimed to detect the maxillary dental midline region on orthodontic frontal photographs using a YOLOv8-based deep learning approach and to evaluate how the detection outputs affect the classification performance of various machine learning algorithms in distinguishing symmetric from asymmetric midline conditions. Materials and Methods: A total of 146 standardized frontal photographs (72 with midline deviation \u2265 2 mm from the facial midline, defined by the soft-tissue nasion\u2013subnasal line; 74 symmetric) were analyzed. YOLOv8 was used to obtain bounding-box and keypoint predictions, which were converted into a numerical feature vector and used to train 11 classifiers (including Naive Bayes, Logistic Regression with L1 and ElasticNet penalties, Support Vector Machine, AdaBoost, and others). Performance was assessed using accuracy (with 95% Wilson confidence intervals), precision, recall, F1-score, and ROC-AUC. Optimization of hyperparameters for the downstream classifiers employed five-fold cross-validation along with grid search inside the training data set (n = 126) while final classifier assessment was done using a reserved test data set (n = 20). As the YOLOv8 object detector was trained using the full image dataset before extracting features, the classification metrics presented here should be considered as exploratory results only. Results: YOLOv8 achieved mAP@0.5 = 0.995 for midline detection. Naive Bayes attained the highest classification accuracy of 75% (95% CI: 53\u201389%) with ROC-AUC = 0.75. AdaBoost achieved 65% (95% CI: 43\u201382%). Several models defaulted to majority-class prediction (accuracy = 40%), indicating insufficient feature discriminability. Conclusions: YOLOv8 detected the maxillary dental midline under the present internal experimental conditions. However, because leakage-free outer k-fold validation of the complete detection-plus-classification pipeline was not performed, the classification results should be considered preliminary. Future work should address information leakage, incorporate facial reference frame normalization, include inter-observer reliability assessment, and validate the approach on larger datasets.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bioengineering13060687","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,17]],"date-time":"2026-06-17T03:27:21Z","timestamp":1781666841000},"page":"687","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Deep Learning-Based Evaluation of Maxillary Dental Midline Deviation on Orthodontic Frontal Photographs"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Sercan","family":"Taskin","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Aydin Adnan Menderes University, Aydin 09010, Turkey"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-2391-9437","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Serra","family":"Aksoy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich (LMU), Oettingenstrasse 67, 80538 Munich, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mine Gecgelen","family":"Cesur","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Aydin Adnan Menderes University, Aydin 09010, Turkey"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1375-5616","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pinar","family":"Demircioglu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Aydin Adnan Menderes University, Aydin 09010, Turkey"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9494-5405","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ismail","family":"Bogrekci","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Aydin Adnan Menderes University, Aydin 09010, Turkey"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcms.2005.11.002","article-title":"Standards for Digital Photography in Cranio-Maxillo-Facial Surgery\u2014Part I: Basic Views and Guidelines","volume":"34","author":"Ettorre","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. 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