{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,3]],"date-time":"2026-08-03T17:57:02Z","timestamp":1785779822050,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":51,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,1]],"date-time":"2026-08-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1785542400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Bioengineering"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Cardiac sarcoma is a rare aggressive malignancy for which survival prediction is limited by small cohorts, censoring, nonlinear prognostic effects, and incomplete interpretability. We developed the GRU\u2013CoxPH Ensemble (GCE), a weighted late-fusion survival framework combining a single-step GRU static-covariate learner with Cox proportional hazards (CoxPHs). Using SEER Research Plus data, 727 eligible patients were identified from 41 source variables, and 27 raw SEER predictors were retained after leakage exclusion and Cox-LASSO\/Random Survival Forest screening. Outcome, follow-up, cause-of-death, identifier, and endpoint-derived fields were removed before preprocessing; imputation, encoding, scaling, feature selection, tuning, and ensemble-weight selection were performed within training folds only. In leakage-free 10-fold out-of-fold evaluation, the GCE achieved high cohort-specific internal discrimination that is likely optimistic and requires external validation (mean C-index =0.9198; IBS = 0.03641), whereas CoxPH showed lower discrimination (C-index = 0.8605) but better IBS calibration (0.03378). Thus, the GCE is better for discrimination, under internal validation, and is not calibration-superior. SHAP provided post hoc descriptive association summaries for the final ensemble risk score. These internal results support the GCE only as a research framework for cardiac sarcoma survival-risk modeling; external validation and recalibration are required before any patient-level clinical consideration.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bioengineering13080891","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,3]],"date-time":"2026-08-03T17:26:52Z","timestamp":1785778012000},"page":"891","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["GCE: A Framework for Interpretable Nonlinear Hazard Modeling in Cardiac Sarcoma Survival Using SEER Data"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-0016-0578","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Muhammad Shoaib","family":"Kareem","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information Technology, Khawaja Fareed University of Engineering and Technology, Rahim Yar Khan 64200, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1297-8757","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Madiha","family":"Amjad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information Technology, Khawaja Fareed University of Engineering and Technology, Rahim Yar Khan 64200, Pakistan"},{"name":"Department of Computer Science, COMSATS University Islamabad, Lahore Campus, Lahore 54000, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7681-4324","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Saba","family":"Aslam","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen 518055, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5334-9001","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abdur","family":"Rasool","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information and Computer Sciences, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8262-9539","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mutiullah","family":"Jamil","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information Technology, Khawaja Fareed University of Engineering and Technology, Rahim Yar Khan 64200, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3058-5794","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hazrat","family":"Ali","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Computing Data and Mathematical Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling FK9 4LA, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6350","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-20167-3","article-title":"A meta-learning approach for genomic survival analysis","volume":"11","author":"Qiu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. 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