{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]],"date-time":"2026-09-04T05:18:17Z","timestamp":1788499097326,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":79,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]],"date-time":"2026-09-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788307200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Science Foundation","award":["CBET-1917618"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CBET-1917618"]}]},{"name":"NSF","award":["2017869"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2017869"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["R01NS125016"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01NS125016"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"award":["R01NS125016"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01NS125016"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01cwqze88","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Bioengineering"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Peripheral neuropathy (PN) is a debilitating condition characterized by chronic pain, numbness, and motor dysfunction, with limited treatment options. Ischemic stroke can cause central neuropathy, which may also induce PN. Human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) have shown promise in therapeutic applications, but limitations in cell viability, immune response, and efficacy persist. Extracellular vesicles (EVs), which facilitate cell-free intercellular communication, offer a promising alternative for nerve regeneration. Electrical stimulation (ES) has emerged as a method to enhance EV secretion, and this study investigates its potential for promoting EV production from human adipose tissue-derived mesenchymal stem cells (hASCs) and human Schwann cells (hSCs). In this study, hASCs, hSCs, and lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflamed hSCs were subjected to one hour of low-frequency direct current (DC) electrical stimulation (100 mV\/mL) for 7 days. EVs were isolated using differential ultracentrifugation and characterized through nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA). Gene expression was analyzed via qRT-PCR to evaluate markers associated with EV biogenesis as well as pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines. Our results demonstrate that ES significantly increases EV secretion from both hASCs and hSCs, with a notable upregulation of genes involved in both the endosomal sorting complex required for transport (ESCRT)-dependent and ESCRT-independent pathways of EV biogenesis. Additionally, ES modulates inflammation-related markers, promoting anti-inflammatory gene expression and reducing pro-inflammatory gene levels. Notably, LPS-induced hSCs exhibited a phenotype shift from myelinating to non-myelinating cells, producing EVs capable of modulating the inflammatory microenvironment. However, prolonged exposure to ES led to a decrease in EV secretion and changes in EV size distribution, suggesting potential cellular adaptation or membrane stress. This study highlights the potential of ES as a scalable, cell-free strategy to enhance EV production, offering new insights into its therapeutic applications for peripheral neuropathy and nerve regeneration.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bioengineering13091025","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]],"date-time":"2026-09-02T10:02:52Z","timestamp":1788343372000},"page":"1025","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Electrical Stimulation of Human Adipose Tissue-Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells and Schwann Cells for Regulating Extracellular Vesicle Biogenesis and Inflammation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2672-0826","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Danyale","family":"Berry","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering, FAMU-FSU College of Engineering, Florida Agricultural and Mechanical University, Tallahassee, FL 32310, USA"},{"name":"High Performance Materials Institute, FAMU-FSU College of Engineering, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 32310, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1852-6548","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aakash","family":"Nathani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Florida Agricultural and Mechanical University, Tallahassee, FL 32307, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fernando","family":"Carrillo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, FAMU-FSU College of Engineering, Florida State University, 2525 Pottsdamer St., Tallahassee, FL 32310, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Abby","family":"Scott","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, FAMU-FSU College of Engineering, Florida State University, 2525 Pottsdamer St., Tallahassee, FL 32310, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-4723-7299","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Justice","family":"Ene","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, FAMU-FSU College of Engineering, Florida State University, 2525 Pottsdamer St., Tallahassee, FL 32310, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-6796-8077","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Colin","family":"Esmonde","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, FAMU-FSU College of Engineering, Florida State University, 2525 Pottsdamer St., Tallahassee, FL 32310, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9192-8143","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mandip","family":"Singh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Florida Agricultural and Mechanical University, Tallahassee, FL 32307, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5938-8519","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yan","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, FAMU-FSU College of Engineering, Florida State University, 2525 Pottsdamer St., Tallahassee, FL 32310, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0855-3497","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Changchun","family":"Zeng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering, FAMU-FSU College of Engineering, Florida Agricultural and Mechanical University, Tallahassee, FL 32310, USA"},{"name":"High Performance Materials Institute, FAMU-FSU College of Engineering, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 32310, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lavorato, A., Raimondo, S., Boido, M., Muratori, L., Durante, G., Cofano, F., Vincitorio, F., Petrone, S., Titolo, P., and Tartara, F. 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