{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,24]],"date-time":"2026-10-24T00:32:39Z","timestamp":1792801959048,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":132,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,8,6]],"date-time":"2020-08-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1596672000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100012591","name":"Mississippi Agricultural and Forestry Experiment Station, Mississippi State University","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["XXXXXXX"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["XXXXXXX"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100012591","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Bioengineering"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Characterized by the hardening of arteries, vascular calcification is the deposition of hydroxyapatite crystals in the arterial tissue. Calcification is now understood to be a cell-regulated process involving the phenotypic transition of vascular smooth muscle cells into osteoblast-like cells. There are various pathways of initiation and mechanisms behind vascular calcification, but this literature review highlights the wingless-related integration site (WNT) pathway, along with bone morphogenic proteins (BMPs) and mechanical strain. The process mirrors that of bone formation and remodeling, as an increase in mechanical stress causes osteogenesis. Observing the similarities between the two may aid in the development of a deeper understanding of calcification. Both are thought to be regulated by the WNT signaling cascade and bone morphogenetic protein signaling and can also be activated in response to stress. In a pro-calcific environment, integrins and cadherins of vascular smooth muscle cells respond to a mechanical stimulus, activating cellular signaling pathways, ultimately resulting in gene regulation that promotes calcification of the vascular extracellular matrix (ECM). The endothelium is also thought to contribute to vascular calcification via endothelial to mesenchymal transition, creating greater cell plasticity. Each of these factors contributes to calcification, leading to increased cardiovascular mortality in patients, especially those suffering from other conditions, such as diabetes and kidney failure. Developing a better understanding of the mechanisms behind calcification may lead to the development of a potential treatment in the future.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bioengineering7030088","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,8,6]],"date-time":"2020-08-06T09:41:21Z","timestamp":1596706881000},"page":"88","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":70,"title":["Mechanisms of the Osteogenic Switch of Smooth Muscle Cells in Vascular Calcification: WNT Signaling, BMPs, Mechanotransduction, and EndMT"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"7","author":[{"given":"John","family":"Tyson","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, Mississippi State University, Starkville, MS 39762, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kaylee","family":"Bundy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, Mississippi State University, Starkville, MS 39762, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cameron","family":"Roach","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, Mississippi State University, Starkville, MS 39762, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hannah","family":"Douglas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, Mississippi State University, Starkville, MS 39762, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Valerie","family":"Ventura","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, Mississippi State University, Starkville, MS 39762, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mary Frances","family":"Segars","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, Mississippi State University, Starkville, MS 39762, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Olivia","family":"Schwartz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, Mississippi State University, Starkville, MS 39762, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"C. LaShan","family":"Simpson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, Mississippi State University, Starkville, MS 39762, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,8,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.1007\/s11926-010-0096-z","article-title":"Mechanical Factors and Bone Health: Effects of Weightlessness and Neurologic Injury","volume":"12","author":"Amin","year":"2010","journal-title":"Curr. Rheumatol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1615\/CritRevEukarGeneExpr.v19.i4.50","article-title":"Mechanical Signaling for Bone Modeling and Remodeling","volume":"19","author":"Robling","year":"2009","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Eukaryot. 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