{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T04:34:33Z","timestamp":1787027673401,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":133,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,2]],"date-time":"2021-12-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1638403200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100007172","name":"Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["Intramural Funding"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Intramural Funding"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100007172","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Bioengineering"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Avascular necrosis (AVN) of the femoral head commonly leads to symptomatic osteoarthritis of the hip. In older patients, hip replacement is a viable option that restores the hip biomechanics and improves pain but in pediatric, adolescent, and young adult patients hip replacements impose significant activity limitations and the need for multiple revision surgeries with increasing risk of complication. Early detection of AVN requires a high level of suspicion as diagnostic techniques such as X-rays are not sensitive in the early stages of the disease. There are multiple etiologies that can lead to this disease. In the pediatric and adolescent population, trauma is a commonly recognized cause of AVN. The understanding of the pathophysiology of the disease is limited, adding to the challenge of devising a clinically effective treatment strategy. Surgical techniques to prevent progression of the disease and avoid total hip replacement include core decompression, vascular grafts, and use of bone-marrow derived stem cells with or without adjuncts, such as bisphosphonates and bone morphogenetic protein (BMP), all of which are partially effective only in the very early stages of the disease. Further, these strategies often only improve pain and range of motion in the short-term in some patients and do not predictably prevent progression of the disease. Tissue engineering strategies with the combined use of biomaterials, stem cells and growth factors offer a potential strategy to avoid metallic implants and surgery. Structural, bioactive biomaterial platforms could help in stabilizing the femoral head while inducing osteogenic differentiation to regenerate bone and provide angiogenic cues to concomitantly recover vasculature in the femoral head. Moreover, injectable systems that can be delivered using a minimal invasive procedure and provide mechanical support the collapsing femoral head could potentially alleviate the need for surgical interventions in the future. The present review describes the limitations of existing surgical methods and the recent advances in tissue engineering that are leading in the direction of a clinically effective, translational solution for AVN in future.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bioengineering8120200","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,2]],"date-time":"2021-12-02T02:40:02Z","timestamp":1638412802000},"page":"200","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":21,"title":["Tissue Engineering Strategies for Treating Avascular Necrosis of the Femoral Head"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"8","author":[{"given":"Sumit","family":"Murab","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Pediatric Orthopaedic Surgery, Cincinnati Children\u2019s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA"},{"name":"Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, College of Medicine, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45267, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Teresa","family":"Hawk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Pediatric Orthopaedic Surgery, Cincinnati Children\u2019s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alexander","family":"Snyder","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Pediatric Orthopaedic Surgery, Cincinnati Children\u2019s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sydney","family":"Herold","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Pediatric Orthopaedic Surgery, Cincinnati Children\u2019s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Meghana","family":"Totapally","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Pediatric Orthopaedic Surgery, Cincinnati Children\u2019s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Patrick W.","family":"Whitlock","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Pediatric Orthopaedic Surgery, Cincinnati Children\u2019s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA"},{"name":"Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, College of Medicine, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45267, USA"},{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45219, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1302\/2058-5241.4.180036","article-title":"Osteonecrosis of the femoral head: Pathophysiology and current concepts of treatment","volume":"4","author":"Petek","year":"2019","journal-title":"EFORT Open Rev."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.5435\/JAAOS-D-16-00362","article-title":"Management of Pediatric Femoral Neck Fracture","volume":"26","author":"Patterson","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. 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