{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,2]],"date-time":"2025-11-02T08:57:55Z","timestamp":1762073875714,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":32,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,29]],"date-time":"2022-10-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1667001600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Bioengineering"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The aim of this paper is to use the new definition of amblyopia and to define the overall visual performance of healthy controls (HCs), patients with strabismus (PS), and patients with refractive amblyopia (PRA), based on the interaction of selected visual abilities. Method: A total of 398 participants were divided in three groups: HCs, PRA, and PS. Variables such as visual acuity, refractive state, degree of stereopsis, phoria state, magnitude, and type of deviation were analyzed using parametric and non-parametric tests. Results: Binocular visual acuity at near is the unique predictor factor for stereopsis in PRA and PS, while age relates to the amount of binocular visual acuity at near, only for PS with stereopsis. Binocular visual acuity at near and phoria states relate to each other in PRA. Binocular visual acuity at near and far in PS is better than PRA, with no differences in the degree of stereopsis. Stereoblind patients were only found among PS (36%). Only (44.9%) of PS had amblyopia. Exophoria predominated among PRA (69.72%) and HCs (78.87%), while exotropia was the predominant deviation in PS (60.54%). Hyperopia was the predominate refractive error among the groups, HCs (74.65%), PRA (79.82%), and PS (59.85%), followed by astigmatism. Interpretation: HCs perform better than PS and PRA. The visual performance of PS with stereopsis and PRA is similar. Binocular visual acuity at near can predict the degree of stereopsis, and stereoblind patients are exclusively related to strabismus.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bioengineering9110626","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,29]],"date-time":"2022-10-29T23:45:00Z","timestamp":1667087100000},"page":"626","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Differences in the Visual Performances of Patients with Strabismus, Amblyopia, and Healthy Controls"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5103-082X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Danjela","family":"Ibrahimi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Aut\u00f3noma de Quer\u00e9taro, Quer\u00e9taro 76176, Mexico"},{"name":"Facultad de Ingenier\u00eda, Universidad Aut\u00f3noma de Quer\u00e9taro, Quer\u00e9taro 76010, Mexico"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8598-5600","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Juvenal","family":"Rodr\u00edguez-Res\u00e9ndiz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Facultad de Ingenier\u00eda, Universidad Aut\u00f3noma de Quer\u00e9taro, Quer\u00e9taro 76010, Mexico"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9173-0732","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jorge Domingo","family":"Mendiola-Santiba\u00f1ez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Facultad de Ingenier\u00eda, Universidad Aut\u00f3noma de Quer\u00e9taro, Quer\u00e9taro 76010, Mexico"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1080\/09273972.2019.1604773","article-title":"Global and regional prevalence of strabismus: A comprehensive systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"27","author":"Hashemi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Strabismus"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2015.01.002","article-title":"Stereopsis and amblyopia: A mini-review","volume":"114","author":"Levi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Vis. 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