{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T04:33:18Z","timestamp":1787027598317,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":118,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,30]],"date-time":"2021-12-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1640822400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biology"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Sarcopenia has been recognized as an inevitable part of aging. However, its severity and the age at which it begins cannot be predicted by age alone. The condition can be categorized into primary or age-related sarcopenia and secondary sarcopenia. Sarcopenia is diagnosed as primary when there are no other specific causes. However, secondary sarcopenia occurs if other factors, including malignancy or organ failure, are evident in addition to aging. The prevalence of secondary sarcopenia is far greater than that of primary sarcopenia and requires special attention. To date, nutrition and exercise have proven to be the best methods to combat this disease. The impact of exercise on subjects suffering from sarcopenia with a specific morbidity is worthy of examination for understanding and prevention. The purpose of this review, therefore, is to summarize recent research that has investigated the impact of exercise in patients with secondary sarcopenia, specifically with one comorbidity. Methods: Pubmed, Web of Science, Embase and Medline databases were searched comprehensively with no date limit for randomized controlled trials. The literature was specifically searched for clinical trials in which subjects were sarcopenic with only one comorbidity participating in an exercise intervention. The most visible comorbidities identified and used in the search were lung disease, kidney disease, heart disease, type 2 diabetes, cancer, neurological diseases, osteoporosis and arthritis. Results: A total of 1752 studies were identified that matched the keywords. After removing duplicates, there were 1317 articles remaining. We extracted 98 articles for full screening. Finally, we included 21 relevant papers that were used in this review. Conclusion: Despite a strong rationale for using exercise to improve muscle mass, quality or physical function in subjects with cancer, type 2 diabetes, kidney disease, lung disease and many more, baseline sarcopenia evaluation has been reported in very few trials. The limited number of studies does not allow us to conclude that exercise can improve sarcopenia in patients with other comorbidities. This review highlights the necessity for wide-ranging research initiatives involving secondary sarcopenic patients.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/biology11010051","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,30]],"date-time":"2021-12-30T21:41:21Z","timestamp":1640900481000},"page":"51","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":31,"title":["Effect of Exercise on Secondary Sarcopenia: A Comprehensive Literature Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2995-1910","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rashmi","family":"Supriya","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Sports Science, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, China"},{"name":"Centre for Health and Exercise Science Research, Sarcopenia Research Unit, Department of Sport, Physical Education and Health, Hong Kong Baptist University, Kowloon Tong 999077, Hong Kong"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kumar Purnendu","family":"Singh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"FEBT, School of Environment, Resources and Development, Asian Institute of Technology, Klong Luang, Pathum Thani 12120, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0439-4804","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yang","family":"Gao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Sports Science, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, China"},{"name":"Centre for Health and Exercise Science Research, Sarcopenia Research Unit, Department of Sport, Physical Education and Health, Hong Kong Baptist University, Kowloon Tong 999077, Hong Kong"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2187-9440","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yaodong","family":"Gu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Sports Science, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9093-7897","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Julien S.","family":"Baker","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Sports Science, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, China"},{"name":"Centre for Health and Exercise Science Research, Sarcopenia Research Unit, Department of Sport, Physical Education and Health, Hong Kong Baptist University, Kowloon Tong 999077, Hong Kong"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1093\/ageing\/afy169","article-title":"Sarcopenia: Revised European consensus on definition and diagnosis","volume":"48","author":"Bahat","year":"2019","journal-title":"Age Ageing"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1093\/bmb\/ldq008","article-title":"Sarcopenia: Characteristics, mechanisms and functional significance","volume":"95","author":"Narici","year":"2010","journal-title":"Br. Med. Bull."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.11005\/jbm.2013.20.1.1","article-title":"Sarcopenia: Definition, Epidemiology, and Pathophysiology","volume":"20","author":"Kim","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Bone Metab."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19551","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-75250-y","article-title":"Prevalence and risk factors of primary sarcopenia in community-dwelling outpatient elderly: A cross-sectional study","volume":"10","author":"Therakomen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"412","DOI":"10.1093\/ageing\/afq034","article-title":"Sarcopenia: European consensus on definition and diagnosis: Report of the European Working Group on Sarcopenia in Older People","volume":"39","author":"Baeyens","year":"2010","journal-title":"Age Ageing"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1016\/j.archger.2012.09.007","article-title":"Body composition and its association with cardiometabolic risk factors in the elderly: A focus on sarcopenic obesity","volume":"56","author":"Chung","year":"2013","journal-title":"Arch. Gerontol. Geriatr."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"649","DOI":"10.2174\/1389203717666161227144349","article-title":"Nutrition and Exercise in Sarcopenia","volume":"19","author":"Anton","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Protein Pept. Sci."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"1959486","article-title":"Effects of Physical Exercise Programs on Sarcopenia Management, Dynapenia, and Physical Performance in the Elderly: A Systematic Review of Randomized Clinical Trials","volume":"2019","author":"Gioscia","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Aging Res."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"913","DOI":"10.1007\/s10120-016-0683-4","article-title":"Effectiveness of a preoperative exercise and nutritional support program for elderly sarcopenic patients with gastric cancer","volume":"20","author":"Yamamoto","year":"2017","journal-title":"Gastric Cancer"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dawson, J.K., Dorff, T.B., Todd Schroeder, E., Lane, C.J., Gross, M.E., and Dieli-Conwright, C.M. (2018). Impact of resistance training on body composition and metabolic syndrome variables during androgen deprivation therapy for prostate cancer: A pilot randomized controlled trial. BMC Cancer, 18.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12885-018-4306-9"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1007\/s10549-016-3900-2","article-title":"Impact of resistance and aerobic exercise on sarcopenia and dynapenia in breast cancer patients receiving adjuvant chemotherapy: A multicenter randomized controlled trial","volume":"158","author":"Adams","year":"2016","journal-title":"Breast Cancer Res. Treat."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"601","DOI":"10.1007\/s10549-021-06238-z","article-title":"Sarcopenia and serum biomarkers of oxidative stress after a 6-month physical activity intervention in women with metastatic breast cancer: Results from the ABLE feasibility trial","volume":"188","author":"Delrieu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Breast Cancer Res. Treat."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"959","DOI":"10.1007\/s10151-020-02262-1","article-title":"Does prehabilitation modify muscle mass in patients with rectal cancer undergoing neoadjuvant therapy? A subanalysis from the REx randomised controlled trial","volume":"24","author":"Moug","year":"2020","journal-title":"Tech. Coloproctol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"573","DOI":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2013.07.001","article-title":"Effect of physical exercise on muscle mass and strength in cancer patients during treatment\u2014A systematic review","volume":"88","author":"Stene","year":"2013","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Oncol. Hematol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1152\/japplphysiol.01575.2011","article-title":"Exercise modulation of the host-tumor interaction in an orthotopic model of murine prostate cancer","volume":"113","author":"Jones","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R667","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpregu.00336.2011","article-title":"Resistance exercise increases NF-\u03baB activity in human skeletal muscle","volume":"302","author":"Vella","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Integr. Comp. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trecan.2017.04.007","article-title":"Exercise and the Hallmarks of Cancer","volume":"3","author":"Provencio","year":"2017","journal-title":"Trends Cancer"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1002\/jcsm.12055","article-title":"Exercise for cancer cachexia in adults: Executive summary of a Cochrane Collaboration systematic review","volume":"6","author":"Grande","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"570170","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2020.570170","article-title":"Exercise Training as Therapeutic Approach in Cancer Cachexia: A Review of Potential Anti-inflammatory Effect on Muscle Wasting","volume":"11","author":"Leal","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Banitalebi, E., Ghahfarrokhi, M.M., and Dehghan, M. (2021). Effect of 12-weeks elastic band resistance training on MyomiRs and osteoporosis markers in elderly women with Osteosarcopenic obesity: A randomized controlled trial. BMC Geriatr., 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12877-021-02374-9"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1634","DOI":"10.1002\/jbmr.4027","article-title":"Effects of High-Intensity Resistance Training on Osteopenia and Sarcopenia Parameters in Older Men with Osteosarcopenia\u2014One-Year Results of the Randomized Controlled Franconian Osteopenia and Sarcopenia Trial (FrOST)","volume":"35","author":"Kemmler","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Bone Miner. Res."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"607","DOI":"10.1007\/s11357-020-00316-8","article-title":"Effects of 16 months of high intensity resistance training on thigh muscle fat infiltration in elderly men with osteosarcopenia","volume":"43","author":"Ghasemikaram","year":"2021","journal-title":"GeroScience"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115772","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bone.2020.115772","article-title":"Detraining effects after 18 months of high intensity resistance training on osteosarcopenia in older men-Six-month follow-up of the randomized controlled Franconian Osteopenia and Sarcopenia Trial (FrOST)","volume":"142","author":"Kemmler","year":"2021","journal-title":"Bone"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111272","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exger.2021.111272","article-title":"Effects of progressive elastic band resistance exercise for aged osteosarcopenic adiposity women","volume":"147","author":"Lee","year":"2021","journal-title":"Exp. Gerontol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"571","DOI":"10.2147\/CIA.S299867","article-title":"Changes in Body Composition and Cardiometabolic Health After Detraining in Older Men with Osteosarcopenia: 6-Month Follow-Up of the Randomized Controlled Franconian Osteopenia and Sarcopenia Trial (FrOST) Study","volume":"16","author":"Kemmler","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Interv. Aging"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2173","DOI":"10.2147\/CIA.S225618","article-title":"The Favorable Effects of a High-Intensity Resistance Training on Sarcopenia in Older Community-Dwelling Men with Osteosarcopenia: The Randomized Controlled FrOST Study","volume":"14","author":"Lichtenberg","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Interv. Aging"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1564","DOI":"10.1080\/02640414.2017.1403413","article-title":"The effects of resistance training volume on osteosarcopenic obesity in older women","volume":"36","author":"Cunha","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Sports Sci."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1014","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2020.01014","article-title":"Effects of High-Intensity Resistance Training on Fitness and Fatness in Older Men With Osteosarcopenia","volume":"11","author":"Kemmler","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1148","DOI":"10.1007\/s12603-018-1139-9","article-title":"International Clinical Practice Guidelines for Sarcopenia (ICFSR): Screening, Diagnosis and Management","volume":"22","author":"Dent","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Nutr. Health Aging"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1937","DOI":"10.1007\/s00198-012-2248-7","article-title":"Effects of exercise on fracture reduction in older adults","volume":"24","author":"Kemmler","year":"2013","journal-title":"Osteoporos. Int."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1493","DOI":"10.1007\/s00198-018-4482-0","article-title":"Exercise effects on bone mineral density in older men: A systematic review with special emphasis on study interventions","volume":"29","author":"Kemmler","year":"2018","journal-title":"Osteoporos. Int."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ghasemikaram, M., Engelke, K., Kohl, M., von Stengel, S., and Kemmler, W. (2021). Detraining Effects on Muscle Quality in Older Men with Osteosarcopenia. Follow-Up of the Randomized Controlled Franconian Osteopenia and Sarcopenia Trial (FrOST). Nutrients, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13051528"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amepre.2010.06.006","article-title":"Trend and Prevalence Estimates Based on the 2008 Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans","volume":"39","author":"Carlson","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. J. Prev. Med."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"514","DOI":"10.1590\/0004-2730000003374","article-title":"Physical exercise and osteoporosis: Effects of different types of exercises on bone and physical function of postmenopausal women","volume":"58","author":"Moreira","year":"2014","journal-title":"Arq. Bras. Endocrinol. Metabol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1216","DOI":"10.1097\/GME.0000000000000100","article-title":"Effects of walking on the preservation of bone mineral density in perimenopausal and postmenopausal women","volume":"20","author":"Ma","year":"2013","journal-title":"Menopause"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1165","DOI":"10.1007\/s40279-016-0494-0","article-title":"Effects of Exercise on Bone Status in Female Subjects, from Young Girls to Postmenopausal Women: An Overview of Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses","volume":"46","author":"Xu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sport. Med."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, C., and Latham, N.K. (2009). Progressive resistance strength training for improving physical function in older adults. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev.","DOI":"10.1002\/14651858.CD002759.pub2"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1111\/ajag.12521","article-title":"Exercise interventions in healthy older adults with sarcopenia: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"37","author":"Vlietstra","year":"2018","journal-title":"Australas. J. Ageing"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sardeli, A., Komatsu, T., Mori, M., G\u00e1spari, A., and Chacon-Mikahil, M. (2018). Resistance Training Prevents Muscle Loss Induced by Caloric Restriction in Obese Elderly Individuals: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Nutrients, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu10040423"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"386","DOI":"10.3138\/ptc.2011-31BH","article-title":"Effect of Resistance Exercises on Function in Older Adults with Osteoporosis or Osteopenia: A Systematic Review","volume":"64","author":"Wilhelm","year":"2012","journal-title":"Physiother. Canada"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e11918","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0000000000011918","article-title":"Whole-body vibration training and bone health in postmenopausal women","volume":"97","author":"Alcaraz","year":"2018","journal-title":"Medicine (Baltimore)"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2151","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apmr.2019.06.006","article-title":"Intradialytic Resistance Training Improves Functional Capacity and Lean Mass Gain in Individuals on Hemodialysis: A Randomized Pilot Trial","volume":"100","author":"Lopes","year":"2019","journal-title":"Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1093\/ndt\/gfz210","article-title":"Muscle mass and plasma myostatin after exercise training: A substudy of Renal Exercise (RENEXC)\u2014A randomized controlled trial","volume":"36","author":"Zhou","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nephrol. Dial. Transplant."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2137","DOI":"10.1007\/s11255-021-02799-6","article-title":"Effects of pre-dialysis resistance training on sarcopenia, inflammatory profile, and anemia biomarkers in older community-dwelling patients with chronic kidney disease: A randomized controlled trial","volume":"53","author":"Gadelha","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. Urol. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18195","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-75405-x","article-title":"Effects of exercise on kidney and physical function in patients with non-dialysis chronic kidney disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"10","author":"Nakamura","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1159\/000502635","article-title":"Effects of Exercise on Muscle Fitness in Dialysis Patients: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"50","author":"Lu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am. J. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Boone, T. (2014). Introduction to exercise Physiology, Burlington, Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC, an Ascend learning Company. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"25","article-title":"Exercise as a remedy for sarcopenia","volume":"17","author":"Landi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Clin. Nutr. Metab. Care"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1249\/JES.0000000000000007","article-title":"Skeletal Muscle Hypertrophy After Aerobic Exercise Training","volume":"42","author":"Konopka","year":"2014","journal-title":"Exerc. Sport Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1556\/APhysiol.102.2015.1.1","article-title":"Cycle training induces muscle hypertrophy and strength gain: Strategies and mechanisms","volume":"102","author":"Ozaki","year":"2015","journal-title":"Acta Physiol. Hung."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"587","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jagp.2019.07.013","article-title":"Effect of Resistance Exercise on Depression in Mild Alzheimer Disease Patients With Sarcopenia","volume":"28","author":"Chang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0028-1093322","article-title":"Effects of Strength and Endurance Training on Brain-derived Neurotrophic Factor and Insulin-like Growth Factor 1 in Humans","volume":"41","author":"Schiffer","year":"2009","journal-title":"Horm. Metab. Res."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1159\/000441029","article-title":"Kicking Back Cognitive Ageing: Leg Power Predicts Cognitive Ageing after Ten Years in Older Female Twins","volume":"62","author":"Steves","year":"2016","journal-title":"Gerontology"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eurger.2017.04.004","article-title":"Muscle strength and cognition in ageing men and women: The DR\u2019s EXTRA study","volume":"8","author":"Savonen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur. Geriatr. Med."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1159\/000486711","article-title":"Lower Cognitive Function in Older Patients with Lower Muscle Strength and Muscle Mass","volume":"45","author":"Verlaan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Dement. Geriatr. Cogn. Disord."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"740","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapsychiatry.2018.0503","article-title":"Association Between Muscular Strength and Cognition in People With Major Depression or Bipolar Disorder and Healthy Controls","volume":"75","author":"Firth","year":"2018","journal-title":"JAMA Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"728","DOI":"10.1093\/schbul\/sby034","article-title":"Grip Strength Is Associated With Cognitive Performance in Schizophrenia and the General Population: A UK Biobank Study of 476559 Participants","volume":"44","author":"Firth","year":"2018","journal-title":"Schizophr. Bull."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"841","DOI":"10.1093\/geronb\/gbv017","article-title":"Grip Strength and Cognitive Abilities: Associations in Old Age","volume":"71","author":"Reynolds","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Gerontol. Ser. B"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"550","DOI":"10.1111\/jgs.14542","article-title":"Mediation of Cognitive Function Improvements by Strength Gains After Resistance Training in Older Adults with Mild Cognitive Impairment: Outcomes of the Study of Mental and Resistance Training","volume":"65","author":"Mavros","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Am. Geriatr. Soc."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.2147\/CIA.S36514","article-title":"Enhancing cognitive functioning in the elderly: Multicomponent vs resistance training","volume":"8","author":"Forte","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin. Interv. Aging"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kilgour, A.H., Todd, O.M., and Starr, J.M. (2014). A systematic review of the evidence that brain structure is related to muscle structure and their relationship to brain and muscle function in humans over the lifecourse. BMC Geriatr., 14.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2318-14-85"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1186\/s11556-019-0217-2","article-title":"Functional and\/or structural brain changes in response to resistance exercises and resistance training lead to cognitive improvements\u2014A systematic review","volume":"16","author":"Herold","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. Rev. Aging Phys. Act."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Burtscher, J., Millet, G.P., Place, N., Kayser, B., and Zanou, N. (2021). The Muscle-Brain Axis and Neurodegenerative Diseases: The Key Role of Mitochondria in Exercise-Induced Neuroprotection. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22126479"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.11005\/jbm.2017.24.2.83","article-title":"Sarcopenia: Neurological Point of View","volume":"24","author":"Kwon","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Bone Metab."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"666","DOI":"10.1001\/archinternmed.2012.379","article-title":"Resistance Training Promotes Cognitive and Functional Brain Plasticity in Seniors With Probable Mild Cognitive Impairment","volume":"172","author":"Nagamatsu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Arch. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainres.2009.09.028","article-title":"Abnormal resting-state functional connectivity of posterior cingulate cortex in amnestic type mild cognitive impairment","volume":"1302","author":"Bai","year":"2009","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"628","DOI":"10.2174\/1567205013666161201201000","article-title":"Directed Functional Connectivity of Posterior Cingulate Cortex and Whole Brain in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease and Mild Cognitive Impairment","volume":"14","author":"Yu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Alzheimer Res."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jns.2011.07.017","article-title":"Baseline and longitudinal patterns of hippocampal connectivity in mild cognitive impairment: Evidence from resting state fMRI","volume":"309","author":"Wang","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1633","DOI":"10.1038\/mp.2016.19","article-title":"Therapeutically relevant structural and functional mechanisms triggered by physical and cognitive exercise","volume":"21","author":"Suo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"814","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jamda.2016.05.002","article-title":"Sarcopenia in Advanced COPD Affects Cardiometabolic Risk Reduction by Short-Term High-intensity Pulmonary Rehabilitation","volume":"17","author":"Schols","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Am. Med. Dir. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e38","DOI":"10.1183\/20734735.003916","article-title":"COPD and exercise: Does it make a difference?","volume":"12","author":"Spruit","year":"2016","journal-title":"Breathe"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"555","DOI":"10.1164\/ajrccm.155.2.9032194","article-title":"Intensity of training and physiologic adaptation in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease","volume":"155","author":"Maltais","year":"1997","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1164\/ajrccm\/143.1.9","article-title":"Reductions in Exercise Lactic Acidosis and Ventilation as a Result of Exercise Training in Patients with Obstructive Lung Disease","volume":"143","author":"Casaburi","year":"1991","journal-title":"Am. Rev. Respir. Dis."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"442","DOI":"10.1164\/ajrccm.154.2.8756820","article-title":"Skeletal muscle adaptation to endurance training in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease","volume":"154","author":"Maltais","year":"1996","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"823","DOI":"10.7326\/0003-4819-122-11-199506010-00003","article-title":"Effects of Pulmonary Rehabilitation on Physiologic and Psychosocial Outcomes in Patients with Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease","volume":"122","author":"Ries","year":"1995","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"971","DOI":"10.1183\/09031936.00075011","article-title":"Strategies of muscle training in very severe COPD patients","volume":"38","author":"Vogiatzis","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ogawa, H., Nakajima, T., Shibasaki, I., Nasuno, T., Kaneda, H., Katayanagi, S., Ishizaka, H., Mizushima, Y., Uematsu, A., and Yasuda, T. (2021). Low-Intensity Resistance Training with Moderate Blood Flow Restriction Appears Safe and Increases Skeletal Muscle Strength and Size in Cardiovascular Surgery Patients: A Pilot Study. J. Clin. Med., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm10030547"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1177\/2047487318798924","article-title":"Safety and efficacy of aerobic exercise commenced early after cardiac surgery: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"26","author":"Doyle","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. J. Prev. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"(2014). JCS Guidelines Guidelines for Rehabilitation in Patients With Cardiovascular Disease (JCS 2012). Circ. J., 78, 2022\u20132093.","DOI":"10.1253\/circj.CJ-66-0094"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"572","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.185214","article-title":"Resistance Exercise in Individuals With and Without Cardiovascular Disease: 2007 Update","volume":"116","author":"Williams","year":"2007","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.0000151788.08740.5C","article-title":"Cardiac Rehabilitation and Secondary Prevention of Coronary Heart Disease","volume":"111","author":"Leon","year":"2005","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"828","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.101.7.828","article-title":"Resistance Exercise in Individuals With and Without Cardiovascular Disease","volume":"101","author":"Pollock","year":"2000","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"687","DOI":"10.1249\/MSS.0b013e3181915670","article-title":"Progression Models in Resistance Training for Healthy Adults","volume":"41","author":"William","year":"2009","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Sports Exerc."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2097","DOI":"10.1152\/jappl.2000.88.6.2097","article-title":"Effects of resistance exercise combined with moderate vascular occlusion on muscular function in humans","volume":"88","author":"Takarada","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.1097\/CORR.0000000000001090","article-title":"Does Blood Flow Restriction Therapy in Patients Older Than Age 50 Result in Muscle Hypertrophy, Increased Strength, or Greater Physical Function? A Systematic Review","volume":"478","author":"Baker","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Orthop. Relat. Res."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.1080\/02640410802626567","article-title":"Muscle activation during low-intensity muscle contractions with restricted blood flow","volume":"27","author":"Yasuda","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Sports Sci."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ishizaka, H., Uematsu, A., Mizushima, Y., Nozawa, N., Katayanagi, S., Matsumoto, K., Nishikawa, K., Takahashi, R., Arakawa, T., and Sawaguchi, T. (2019). Blood Flow Restriction Increases the Neural Activation of the Knee Extensors During Very Low-Intensity Leg Extension Exercise in Cardiovascular Patients: A Pilot Study. J. Clin. Med., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm8081252"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.3806\/ijktr.2.5","article-title":"KAATSU Training Group Use and safety of KAATSU training: Results of a national survey","volume":"2","author":"Nakajima","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. KAATSU Train. Res."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"232596712090682","DOI":"10.1177\/2325967120906822","article-title":"Perioperative Blood Flow Restriction Rehabilitation in Patients Undergoing ACL Reconstruction: A Systematic Review","volume":"8","author":"Lu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Orthop. J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3806\/ijktr.6.1","article-title":"Effects of low-intensity KAATSU resistance training on skeletal muscle size\/strength and endurance capacity in patients with ischemic heart disease","volume":"6","author":"Nakajima","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. KAATSU Train. Res."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1117","DOI":"10.5551\/jat.39065","article-title":"Effects of 24-Week Aerobic and Resistance Training on Carotid Artery Intima-Media Thickness and Flow Velocity in Elderly Women with Sarcopenic Obesity","volume":"24","author":"Park","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Atheroscler. Thromb."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2341","DOI":"10.1152\/jappl.2001.90.6.2341","article-title":"Randomized trial of progressive resistance training to counteract the myopathy of chronic heart failure","volume":"90","author":"Pu","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"728","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbadis.2018.08.019","article-title":"Impact of exercise training on cardiovascular disease and risk","volume":"1865","author":"Adams","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta\u2014Mol. Basis Dis."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"791","DOI":"10.1053\/euhj.2000.2285","article-title":"Physical training reduces peripheral markers of inflammation in patients with chronic heart failure","volume":"22","author":"Adamopoulos","year":"2001","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"532620","DOI":"10.4061\/2011\/532620","article-title":"Effect of Exercise Training on Interleukin-6, Tumour Necrosis Factor Alpha and Functional Capacity in Heart Failure","volume":"2011","author":"Smart","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cardiol. Res. Pract."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"861","DOI":"10.1016\/S0735-1097(03)00848-9","article-title":"Anti-inflammatory effects of exercise training in the skeletal muscle of patients with chronic heart failure","volume":"42","author":"Gielen","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cyto.2009.10.007","article-title":"Exercise training changes IL-10\/TNF-\u03b1 ratio in the skeletal muscle of post-MI rats","volume":"49","author":"Batista","year":"2010","journal-title":"Cytokine"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cunha, T.F., Bacurau, A.V.N., Moreira, J.B.N., Paix\u00e3o, N.A., Campos, J.C., Ferreira, J.C.B., Leal, M.L., Negr\u00e3o, C.E., Moriscot, A.S., and Wisl\u00f8ff, U. (2012). Exercise Training Prevents Oxidative Stress and Ubiquitin-Proteasome System Overactivity and Reverse Skeletal Muscle Atrophy in Heart Failure. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0041701"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Souza, R.W.A., Piedade, W.P., Soares, L.C., Souza, P.A.T., Aguiar, A.F., Vechetti-J\u00fanior, I.J., Campos, D.H.S., Fernandes, A.A.H., Okoshi, K., and Carvalho, R.F. (2014). Aerobic Exercise Training Prevents Heart Failure-Induced Skeletal Muscle Atrophy by Anti-Catabolic, but Not Anabolic Actions. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0110020"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2716","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.111.047381","article-title":"Exercise Training Attenuates MuRF-1 Expression in the Skeletal Muscle of Patients With Chronic Heart Failure Independent of Age","volume":"125","author":"Gielen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49831","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M204291200","article-title":"Myostatin Inhibits Myoblast Differentiation by Down-regulating MyoD Expression","volume":"277","author":"Langley","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.882068","article-title":"Genetic Deletion of Myostatin From the Heart Prevents Skeletal Muscle Atrophy in Heart Failure","volume":"121","author":"Heineke","year":"2010","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2682","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa040933","article-title":"Myostatin Mutation Associated with Gross Muscle Hypertrophy in a Child","volume":"350","author":"Schuelke","year":"2004","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"404","DOI":"10.1177\/1741826711402735","article-title":"Exercise training leads to a reduction of elevated myostatin levels in patients with chronic heart failure","volume":"19","author":"Lenk","year":"2012","journal-title":"Eur. J. Prev. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1847","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.102.15.1847","article-title":"Heart Failure Affects Mitochondrial but Not Myofibrillar Intrinsic Properties of Skeletal Muscle","volume":"102","author":"Veksler","year":"2000","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1016\/S1071-9164(00)00011-7","article-title":"Mitochondrial respiratory chain activity in idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy","volume":"6","author":"Quigley","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Card. Fail."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fl\u00fcck, M., and Hoppeler, H. (2003). Molecular basis of skeletal muscle plasticity-from gene to form and function. Reviews of Physiology, Biochemistry and Pharmacology, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/s10254-002-0004-7"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"797","DOI":"10.1038\/nature00904","article-title":"Transcriptional co-activator PGC-1\u03b1 drives the formation of slow-twitch muscle fibres","volume":"418","author":"Lin","year":"2002","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cardiores.2006.09.003","article-title":"Beneficial effects of endurance training on cardiac and skeletal muscle energy metabolism in heart failure","volume":"73","author":"Venturaclapier","year":"2007","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Res."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1276","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbagen.2013.11.016","article-title":"Skeletal muscle mitochondria: A major player in exercise, health and disease","volume":"1840","author":"Russell","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta\u2014Gen. Subj."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1067","DOI":"10.1016\/S0735-1097(97)00015-6","article-title":"Effects of Endurance Training on Mitochondrial Ultrastructure and Fiber Type Distribution in Skeletal Muscle of Patients With Stable Chronic Heart Failure","volume":"29","author":"Hambrecht","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"988","DOI":"10.1111\/apt.15491","article-title":"Review article: Impact of exercise on physical frailty in patients with chronic liver disease","volume":"50","author":"Williams","year":"2019","journal-title":"Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.3390\/jfmk1010118","article-title":"The Role of Physical Activity and Nutrition in the Sarcopenia of Cirrhosis","volume":"1","author":"Trovato","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1026","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.28132","article-title":"Physical activity and liver diseases","volume":"63","author":"Berzigotti","year":"2016","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"ref_115","first-page":"563","article-title":"Effect of strength exercise with elastic bands and aerobic exercise in the treatment of frailty of the elderly patient with type 2 diabetes mellitus","volume":"66","author":"Gallego","year":"2019","journal-title":"Endocrinol. Diabetes Nutr. (Engl. Ed.)"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rehab.2018.11.001","article-title":"Exercise and insulin resistance in type 2 diabetes mellitus: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"62","author":"Sampath","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ann. Phys. Rehabil. Med."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e046252","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2020-046252","article-title":"Effectiveness of combined exercise in people with type 2 diabetes and concurrent overweight\/obesity: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"11","author":"Zhao","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1218","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.286.10.1218","article-title":"Effects of Exercise on Glycemic Control and Body Mass in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus","volume":"286","author":"Haddad","year":"2001","journal-title":"JAMA"}],"container-title":["Biology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-7737\/11\/1\/51\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T07:55:58Z","timestamp":1760169358000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-7737\/11\/1\/51"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,30]]},"references-count":118,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,1]]}},"alternative-id":["biology11010051"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/biology11010051","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-7737"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-7737","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,30]]}}}