{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T21:14:41Z","timestamp":1790889281100,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":141,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,9]],"date-time":"2022-03-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1646784000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Fondazione Anna Maria Sechi per il Cuore (FASC)","award":["00000"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["00000"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biology"],"abstract":"<jats:p>There is a growing interest in arterial and heart valve calcifications, as these contribute to cardiovascular outcome, and are leading predictors of cardiovascular and kidney diseases. Cardiovascular calcifications are often considered as one disease, but, in effect, they represent multifaced disorders, occurring in different milieus and biological phenotypes, following different pathways. Herein, we explore each different molecular process, its relative link with the specific clinical condition, and the current therapeutic approaches to counteract calcifications. Thus, first, we explore the peculiarities between vascular and valvular calcium deposition, as this occurs in different tissues, responds differently to shear stress, has specific etiology and time courses to calcification. Then, we differentiate the mechanisms and pathways leading to hyperphosphatemic calcification, typical of the media layer of the vessel and mainly related to chronic kidney diseases, to those of inflammation, typical of the intima vascular calcification, which predominantly occur in atherosclerotic vascular diseases. Finally, we examine calcifications secondary to rheumatic valve disease or other bacterial lesions and those occurring in autoimmune diseases. The underlying clinical conditions of each of the biological calcification phenotypes and the specific opportunities of therapeutic intervention are also considered and discussed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/biology11030414","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,9]],"date-time":"2022-03-09T11:30:38Z","timestamp":1646825438000},"page":"414","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":17,"title":["Cardiac Calcifications: Phenotypes, Mechanisms, Clinical and Prognostic Implications"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Francesco","family":"Vieceli Dalla Sega","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Cardiovascular Department, GVM Care and Research, Maria Cecilia Hospital, Via Corriera 1, 48033 Cotignola, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Francesca","family":"Fortini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cardiovascular Department, GVM Care and Research, Maria Cecilia Hospital, Via Corriera 1, 48033 Cotignola, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8857-8071","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paolo","family":"Severi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory for Technologies of Advanced Therapies (LTTA), Department of Translational Medicine, University of Ferrara, Via Fossato di Mortara 64\/B, 44121 Ferrara, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7174-9674","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paola","family":"Rizzo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cardiovascular Department, GVM Care and Research, Maria Cecilia Hospital, Via Corriera 1, 48033 Cotignola, Italy"},{"name":"Laboratory for Technologies of Advanced Therapies (LTTA), Department of Translational Medicine, University of Ferrara, Via Fossato di Mortara 64\/B, 44121 Ferrara, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Iija","family":"Gardi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cardiovascular Department, GVM Care and Research, Maria Cecilia Hospital, Via Corriera 1, 48033 Cotignola, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3326-7663","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paolo","family":"Cimaglia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cardiovascular Department, GVM Care and Research, Maria Cecilia Hospital, Via Corriera 1, 48033 Cotignola, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Claudio","family":"Rapezzi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cardiovascular Department, GVM Care and Research, Maria Cecilia Hospital, Via Corriera 1, 48033 Cotignola, Italy"},{"name":"Laboratory for Technologies of Advanced Therapies (LTTA), Department of Translational Medicine, University of Ferrara, Via Fossato di Mortara 64\/B, 44121 Ferrara, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4448-5209","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Luigi","family":"Tavazzi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cardiovascular Department, GVM Care and Research, Maria Cecilia Hospital, Via Corriera 1, 48033 Cotignola, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2046-9175","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Roberto","family":"Ferrari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory for Technologies of Advanced Therapies (LTTA), Department of Translational Medicine, University of Ferrara, Via Fossato di Mortara 64\/B, 44121 Ferrara, Italy"},{"name":"Prevention Centre, University of Ferrara, Corso Ercole I\u00b0 D\u2019Este 32, 44121 Ferrara, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"434","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2018.05.027","article-title":"Coronary Calcium Score and Cardiovascular Risk","volume":"72","author":"Greenland","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. 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