{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,29]],"date-time":"2026-10-29T15:05:12Z","timestamp":1793286312466,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":189,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,17]],"date-time":"2023-06-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1686960000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Polish Medical Research Agency","award":["2019\/ABM\/01\/00047-00"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2019\/ABM\/01\/00047-00"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biology"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Myocarditis is an inflammatory disease of the myocardium caused by infectious or non-infectious agents. It can lead to serious short-term and long-term sequalae, such as sudden cardiac death or dilated cardiomyopathy. Due to its heterogenous clinical presentation and disease course, challenging diagnosis and limited evidence for prognostic stratification, myocarditis poses a great challenge to clinicians. As it stands, the pathogenesis and etiology of myocarditis is only partially understood. Moreover, the impact of certain clinical features on risk assessment, patient outcomes and treatment options is not entirely clear. Such data, however, are essential in order to personalize patient care and implement novel therapeutic strategies. In this review, we discuss the possible etiologies of myocarditis, outline the key processes governing its pathogenesis and summarize best available evidence regarding patient outcomes and state-of-the-art therapeutic approaches.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/biology12060874","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,19]],"date-time":"2023-06-19T03:04:40Z","timestamp":1687143880000},"page":"874","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":56,"title":["Myocarditis: Etiology, Pathogenesis, and Their Implications in Clinical Practice"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7551-2153","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emil","family":"Brociek","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"First Department of Cardiology, Medical University of Warsaw, 02-097 Warsaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1381-302X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Agata","family":"Tymi\u0144ska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"First Department of Cardiology, Medical University of Warsaw, 02-097 Warsaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andrea Silvio","family":"Giordani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cardiology, Department of Cardiac Thoracic Vascular Sciences and Public Health, University of Padova, 35-100 Padova, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4901-5655","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alida Linda Patrizia","family":"Caforio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cardiology, Department of Cardiac Thoracic Vascular Sciences and Public Health, University of Padova, 35-100 Padova, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6385-2345","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Romuald","family":"Wojnicz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Histology and Cell Pathology in Zabrze, School of Medicine with the Division of Dentistry, Medical University of Silesia, 40-055 Katowice, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marcin","family":"Grabowski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"First Department of Cardiology, Medical University of Warsaw, 02-097 Warsaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Krzysztof","family":"Oziera\u0144ski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"First Department of Cardiology, Medical University of Warsaw, 02-097 Warsaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"841","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.93.5.841","article-title":"Report of the 1995 World Health Organization\/International Society and Federation of Cardiology Task Force on the Definition and Classification of cardiomyopathies","volume":"93","author":"Richardson","year":"1996","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2636","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/eht210","article-title":"Current state of knowledge on aetiology, diagnosis, management, and therapy of myocarditis: A position statement of the European Society of Cardiology Working Group on Myocardial and Pericardial Diseases","volume":"34","author":"Caforio","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eur. 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