{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,31]],"date-time":"2026-10-31T00:48:44Z","timestamp":1793407724632,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":107,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,17]],"date-time":"2023-07-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1689552000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"VA Rehab","award":["RX000873-01A2"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RX000873-01A2"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biology"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The overwhelming increase in the prevalence of obesity and related disorders in recent years is one of the greatest threats to the global healthcare system since it generates immense healthcare costs. As the prevalence of obesity approaches epidemic proportions, the importance of elucidating the mechanisms regulating appetite, satiety, body metabolism, energy balance and adiposity has garnered significant attention. Currently, gastrointestinal (GI) bariatric surgery remains the only approach capable of achieving successful weight loss. Appetite, satiety, feeding behavior, energy intake and expenditure are regulated by central and peripheral neurohormonal mechanisms that have not been fully elucidated yet. Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Polypeptide (PACAP) and Vasoactive Intestinal Polypeptide (VIP) are members of a family of regulatory peptides that are widely distributed in parallel with their specific receptors, VPAC1R, VPAC2R and PAC1R, in the central nervous system (CNS) and in the periphery, such as in the gastrointestinal tract and its associated organs and immune cells. PACAP and VIP have been reported to play an important role in the regulation of body phenotype, metabolism and homeostatic functions. The purpose of this review is to present recent data on the effects of PACAP, VIP, VPAC1R, VPAC2R and PAC1R on the modulation of appetite, satiety, metabolism, calorie intake and fat accumulation, to evaluate their potential use as therapeutic targets for the treatment of obesity and metabolic syndrome.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/biology12071013","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,17]],"date-time":"2023-07-17T00:35:04Z","timestamp":1689554104000},"page":"1013","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["PACAP and VIP Neuropeptides\u2019 and Receptors\u2019 Effects on Appetite, Satiety and Metabolism"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"John P.","family":"Vu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Service, Veterans Affairs Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Los Angeles, CA 90073, USA"},{"name":"CURE\/Digestive Diseases Research Center, Department of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90073, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Leon","family":"Luong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Service, Veterans Affairs Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Los Angeles, CA 90073, USA"},{"name":"CURE\/Digestive Diseases Research Center, Department of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90073, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Daniel","family":"Sanford","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Service, Veterans Affairs Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Los Angeles, CA 90073, USA"},{"name":"CURE\/Digestive Diseases Research Center, Department of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90073, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Suwan","family":"Oh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Service, Veterans Affairs Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Los Angeles, CA 90073, USA"},{"name":"CURE\/Digestive Diseases Research Center, Department of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90073, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-0673-6993","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alma","family":"Kuc","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Service, Veterans Affairs Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Los Angeles, CA 90073, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rita","family":"Pisegna","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Service, Veterans Affairs Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Los Angeles, CA 90073, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michael","family":"Lewis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Hematology and Oncology, Department of Medicine, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA 90078, USA"},{"name":"Department of Pathology, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA 90048, USA"},{"name":"Department of Pathology, Veterans Affairs Greater Los Angeles Health Care System, Los Angeles, CA 90073, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Joseph R.","family":"Pisegna","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Service, Veterans Affairs Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Los Angeles, CA 90073, USA"},{"name":"CURE\/Digestive Diseases Research Center, Department of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90073, USA"},{"name":"Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Parenteral Nutrition, VA Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System and Department of Medicine, Los Angeles, CA 90073, USA"},{"name":"Division of Human Genetics, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Patrizia M.","family":"Germano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Service, Veterans Affairs Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Los Angeles, CA 90073, USA"},{"name":"CURE\/Digestive Diseases Research Center, Department of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90073, USA"},{"name":"Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care, Veterans Affairs Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Los Angeles, CA 90073, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alhabeeb, H., AlFaiz, A., Kutbi, E., AlShahrani, D., Alsuhail, A., AlRajhi, S., Alotaibi, N., Alotaibi, K., AlAmri, S., and Alghamdi, S. 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