{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,1]],"date-time":"2026-04-01T16:22:34Z","timestamp":1775060554655,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":115,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,16]],"date-time":"2024-04-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1713225600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biology"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This review explores the historical development of cardiology knowledge, from ancient Egyptian psychostasis to the modern comprehension of cardiac neuromodulation. In ancient Egyptian religion, psychostasis was the ceremony in which the deceased was judged before gaining access to the afterlife. This ritual was also known as the \u201cweighing of the heart\u201d or \u201cweighing of the soul\u201d. The Egyptians believed that the heart, not the brain, was the seat of human wisdom, emotions, and memory. They were the first to recognize the cardiocentric nature of the body, identifying the heart as the center of the circulatory system. Aristotle (fourth century BC) considered the importance of the heart in human physiology in his philosophical analyses. For Galen (third century AD), the heart muscle was the site of the vital spirit, which regulated body temperature. Cardiology knowledge advanced significantly in the 15th century, coinciding with Leonardo da Vinci and Vesalius\u2019s pioneering anatomical and physiological studies. It was William Harvey, in the 17th century, who introduced the concept of cardiac circulation. Servet\u2019s research and Marcello Malpighi\u2019s discovery of arterioles and capillaries provided a more detailed understanding of circulation. Richard Lower emerged as the foremost pioneer of experimental cardiology in the late 17th century. He demonstrated the heart\u2019s neural control by tying off the vagus nerve. In 1753, Albrecht von Haller, a professor at G\u00f6ttingen, was the first to discover the heart\u2019s automaticity and the excitation of muscle fibers. Towards the end of the 18th century, Antonio Scarpa challenged the theories of Albrecht von Haller and Johann Bernhard Jacob Behrends, who maintained that the myocardium possessed its own \u201cirritability\u201d, on which the heartbeat depended, and was independent of neuronal sensitivity. Instead, Scarpa argued that the heart required innervation to maintain life, refuting Galenic notions. In contemporary times, the study of cardiac innervation has regained prominence, particularly in understanding the post-acute sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2) infection (PASC), which frequently involves cardiorespiratory symptoms and dysregulation of the intrinsic cardiac innervation. Recently, it has been recognized that post-acute sequelae of acute respiratory infections (ARIs) due to other pathogens can also be a cause of long-term vegetative and somatic symptoms. Understanding cardiac innervation and modulation can help to recognize and treat long COVID and long non-COVID-19 (coronavirus disease 2019) ARIs. This analysis explores the historical foundations of cardiac neuromodulation and its contemporary relevance. By focusing on this concept, we aim to bridge the gap between historical understanding and modern applications. This will illuminate the complex interplay between cardiac function, neural modulation, cardiovascular health, and disease management in the context of long-term cardiorespiratory symptoms and dysregulation of intrinsic cardiac innervations.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/biology13040266","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,17]],"date-time":"2024-04-17T08:22:44Z","timestamp":1713342164000},"page":"266","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["From Psychostasis to the Discovery of Cardiac Nerves: The Origins of the Modern Cardiac Neuromodulation Concept"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4319-4832","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Beatrice","family":"Paradiso","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Lino Rossi Research Center, Department of Biomedical, Surgical and Dental Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Surgery, University of Milan, 20122 Milan, Italy"},{"name":"Consultant Cyto\/Histopathologist (Anatomic Pathologist) Anatomic Pathology Unit, Dolo Hospital Venice, 30031 Dolo, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Dainius H.","family":"Pauza","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Anatomy, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences Kaunas, 44307 Kaunas, Lithuania"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Clara","family":"Limback","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Oxford University Hospitals, NHS Trust, Oxford OX3 7JH, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6982-170X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giulia","family":"Ottaviani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Lino Rossi Research Center, Department of Biomedical, Surgical and Dental Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Surgery, University of Milan, 20122 Milan, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Biomedical, Surgical and Dental Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Surgery, University of Milan, 20122 Milan, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, McGovern Medical School, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX 77054, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8814-2577","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gaetano","family":"Thiene","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cardiovascular Pathology, Department of Cardiac, Thoracic, Vascular Sciences and Public Health, University of Padua, 35122 Padua, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"367","article-title":"La conception du coeur dans l\u2019Egypte ancienne (Concepts of the heart in Ancient Egypt)","volume":"20","author":"Ziskind","year":"2004","journal-title":"Med. 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