{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,28]],"date-time":"2026-08-28T05:58:36Z","timestamp":1787896716711,"version":"build-2784847793"},"reference-count":73,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,28]],"date-time":"2025-01-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1738022400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Daniele Giansanti"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biology"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Neuroprosthetics for vision restoration have advanced significantly, incorporating technologies like retinal implants, cortical implants, and non-invasive stimulation methods. These advancements hold the potential to tackle major challenges in visual prosthetics, such as enhancing functionality, improving biocompatibility, and enabling real-time object recognition. Aim: The aim of this review overview is to provide a comprehensive analysis of the latest advancements in ocular neuroprostheses. Methods: A narrative review was conducted, focusing on the latest developments in visual neuroprosthetics. Comprehensive searches were carried out on Google Scholar, PubMed, and Scopus using specific keywords. A specific narrative checklist was applied, alongside a tailored quality assessment methodology, to evaluate the quality of the studies included. A total of sixteen relevant studies from the past three years were included in the review. Results and discussion: The integration of artificial retinas, cortical implants, high technology-enabled prosthetics, gene therapies, nanotechnology, and bioprinting has shown significant promise in enhancing the quality and functionality of vision restoration systems, offering potential to address complex visual impairments and improve independence and mobility for individuals with blindness. These innovations appear to have the potential to transform healthcare systems in the future by enabling more efficient and personalized therapies and prosthetic devices. However, challenges such as energy efficiency, scalability, and the neural dynamics of vision restoration persist, requiring continued interdisciplinary collaboration to refine these technologies, overcome ethical and regulatory hurdles, and ensure their effectiveness in real-world applications. Conclusions: While visual neuroprosthetics have made remarkable progress, addressing challenges related to energy consumption and regulatory and ethical concerns will be crucial for ensuring that neuroprosthetic devices can effectively meet the needs of individuals with visual impairments.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/biology14020134","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,28]],"date-time":"2025-01-28T06:47:29Z","timestamp":1738046849000},"page":"134","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Advancements in Ocular Neuro-Prosthetics: Bridging Neuroscience and Information and Communication Technology for Vision Restoration"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Daniele","family":"Giansanti","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro TISP, ISS Via Regina Elena 299, 00161 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"(2024, December 05). Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/publications\/i\/item\/world-report-on-vision."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"(2024, December 05). Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/assistive-technology."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"(2024, December 05). Available online: https:\/\/www.ncoa.org\/article\/how-assistive-technology-and-adaptive-equipment-help-people-living-with-vision-loss\/."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1939","DOI":"10.1044\/2023_AJSLP-22-00397","article-title":"An Evidence-Based Approach to Augmentative and Alternative Communication Design for Individuals with Cortical Visual Impairment","volume":"32","author":"Wilkinson","year":"2023","journal-title":"Am. J. Speech-Lang. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S177","DOI":"10.4103\/0975-7406.100264","article-title":"Custom-made ocular prosthesis","volume":"4","author":"Gunaseelaraj","year":"2012","journal-title":"Pharm. Bioallied Sci."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clae.2007.01.002","article-title":"Ocular prosthesis","volume":"30","author":"Raizada","year":"2007","journal-title":"Contact Lens Anterior Eye"},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"(2024, December 05). Available online: https:\/\/www.webmd.com\/eye-health\/prosthetic-eye-ocular-prosthesis."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(99)00116-5","article-title":"A study on natural movement of artificial eye implant","volume":"32","author":"Gu","year":"2000","journal-title":"Robot. Auton. Syst."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, K.Y., Mina, M., Sahyoun, J.Y., Kalevar, A., and Tran, S.D. (2023). Retinal Prostheses: Engineering and Clinical Perspectives for Vision Restoration. Sensors, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/s23135782"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1383","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinph.2019.11.029","article-title":"An update on retinal prostheses","volume":"131","author":"Ayton","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"716","DOI":"10.21037\/atm-22-2858","article-title":"A narrative review of cortical visual prosthesis systems: The latest progress and significance of nanotechnology for the future","volume":"10","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ann. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1007\/s13311-018-0660-1","article-title":"Brain Machine Interfaces for Vision Restoration: The Current State of Cortical Visual Prosthetics","volume":"16","author":"Niketeghad","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neurotherapeutics"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1186\/s40779-019-0206-9","article-title":"Contemporary approaches to visual prostheses","volume":"6","author":"Mirochnik","year":"2019","journal-title":"Military Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, J.W., Chen, C.Y., Yu, Z.Y., Chung, J.H.Y., Liu, X., Wu, C.Y., and Chen, G.Y. (2022). An electroactive hybrid biointerface for enhancing neuronal differentiation and axonal outgrowth on bio-subretinal chip. Mater. Today Biol., 14.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mtbio.2022.100253"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"834","DOI":"10.1016\/j.stem.2018.05.013","article-title":"Regenerating Eye Tissues to Preserve and Restore Vision","volume":"22","author":"Stern","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell Stem Cell"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2783","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajpath.2016.07.017","article-title":"Electrical Stimulation as a Means for Improving Vision","volume":"186","author":"Sehic","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am. J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1558","DOI":"10.4103\/1673-5374.303015","article-title":"Non-invasive electrical stimulation as a potential treatment for retinal degenerative diseases","volume":"16","author":"Chang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neural Regen. Res."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"(2024, December 05). Available online: https:\/\/www.sphericalinsights.com\/reports\/ocular-prosthesis-market."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"(2024, December 05). Available online: https:\/\/legacyfileshare.elsevier.com\/promis_misc\/ANDJ%20Narrative%20Review%20Checklist.pdf."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1007\/s10339-024-01208-x","article-title":"Evolution, perception, and the mind","volume":"25","author":"Feldman","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cogn. Process."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2403538","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.202403538","article-title":"Negative Photoconductivity Transistors for Visuomorphic Computing","volume":"36","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3605","DOI":"10.1021\/acsabm.4c00435","article-title":"Information Transmission through Biotic-AbioticInterfaces to Restore or Enhance Human Function","volume":"7","author":"Kelly","year":"2024","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Biol. Mater."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stoddart, P.R., Begeng, J.M., Tong, W., Ibbotson, M.R., and Kameneva, T. (2024). Nanoparticle-based optical interfaces for retinal neuromodulation: A review. Front. Cell. Neurosci., 18.","DOI":"10.3389\/fncel.2024.1360870"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.31348\/2024\/2","article-title":"Visual Neuroprosthesis\u2014Stimulation of Visual Cortical Centers in The Brain. Design of Non-Invasive Transcranial Stimulation of Functional Neurons","volume":"80","year":"2024","journal-title":"Czech Slovak Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kurbis, A.G., Kuzmenko, D., Ivanyuk-Skulskiy, B., Mihailidis, A., and Laschowski, B. (2024). StairNet: Visual recognition of stairs for human-robot locomotion. Biomed. Eng. Online, 23.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12938-024-01216-0"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1093\/postmj\/qgae016","article-title":"Advancements in the treatment of age-related macular degeneration: A comprehensive review","volume":"100","author":"Papaioannou","year":"2024","journal-title":"Postgrad. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"e48006","article-title":"Retinitis Pigmentosa: Pathogenesis, Diagnostic Findings, and Treatment","volume":"15","author":"Kamde","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.17116\/oftalma2023139051105","article-title":"Bioprinting technologies in ophthalmology","volume":"139","author":"Kravchenko","year":"2023","journal-title":"Vestn. Oftalmol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Borchert, G.A., Shamsnajafabadi, H., Hu, M.L., De Silva, S.R., Downes, S.M., MacLaren, R.E., Xue, K., and Cehajic-Kapetanovic, J. (2023). The Role of Inflammation in Age-Related Macular Degeneration-Therapeutic Landscapes in Geographic Atrophy. Cells, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells12162092"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"482","DOI":"10.1021\/acssensors.2c02790","article-title":"Applications of Graphene in Five Senses, Nervous System, and Artificial Muscles","volume":"8","author":"Pang","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACS Sens."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19892","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.2c08543","article-title":"Photoactive Nanomaterials for Wireless Neural Biomimetics, Stimulation, and Regeneration","volume":"16","author":"Zhao","year":"2022","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25158414221134602","DOI":"10.1177\/25158414221134602","article-title":"RNA-based therapies in inherited retinal diseases","volume":"14","author":"Girach","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ther. Adv. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.17116\/oftalma202213803195","article-title":"Modern concepts of bionic vision","volume":"138","author":"Kravchenko","year":"2022","journal-title":"Vestn. Oftalmol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, S., Roh, H., and Im, M. (2022). Artificial Visual Information Produced by Retinal Prostheses. Front. Cell Neurosci., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fncel.2022.911754"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1067","DOI":"10.1080\/07853890.2022.2066169","article-title":"New frontiers of retinal therapeutic intervention: A critical analysis of novel approaches","volume":"54","author":"Nanegrungsunk","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ann. Med."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"(2024, December 05). Available online: https:\/\/www.afb.org\/blindness-and-low-vision\/disability-rights\/advocacy-resources\/disability-rights-resources."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hwang, J., Kim, K.H., Hwang, J.G., Jun, S., Yu, J., and Lee, C. (2020). Technological Opportunity Analysis: Assistive Technology for Blind and Visually Impaired People. Sustainability, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/su12208689"},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"(2024, December 05). Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/standards\/classifications\/international-classification-of-functioning-disability-and-health#:~:text=The%20International%20Classification%20of%20Functioning,a%20list%20of%20environmental%20factors."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"(2024, December 05). Available online: https:\/\/www.snsinsider.com\/reports\/neuroprosthetics-market-2882."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"(2024, December 05). Available online: https:\/\/finance.yahoo.com\/news\/ocular-prosthesis-market-trends-challenges-105700490.html."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"(2024, December 05). Available online: https:\/\/news.northwestern.edu\/stories\/2024\/12\/vision-restoring-project-receives-up-to-56-million-to-fast-track-development."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"(2024, December 05). Available online: https:\/\/www.news-medical.net\/news\/20241216\/Federal-funding-boosts-effort-to-make-eye-transplants-a-reality.aspx."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"(2024, December 05). Available online: https:\/\/www.cortigent.com\/orion."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"(2024, December 05). Available online: https:\/\/www.ern-eye.eu\/it\/trials\/argus-ii-retinal-prosthesis-system-post-market-study\/."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"(2024, December 05). Available online: https:\/\/www.upmc.com\/services\/eye\/services\/retina-vitreoretinal\/prima-study."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"(2024, December 05). Available online: https:\/\/www.visiontherapycanada.com\/vision-therapy\/neuro-optometric-rehabilitation-therapy\/."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"(2024, December 05). Available online: https:\/\/www.advancedvisionsolutions.com\/eye-care-services\/neuro-optometric-rehabilitation\/."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"(2024, December 05). Available online: https:\/\/www.sydney.edu.au\/engineering\/our-research\/healthcare-engineering\/implantable-neuroprosthesis.html."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"(2024, December 05). Available online: https:\/\/www.tomorrow.bio\/it\/post\/la-connessione-bionica-come-le-neuroprotesi-collegano-mente-e-macchina."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1167\/tvst.13.11.28","article-title":"Aligning Visual Prosthetic Development with Implantee Needs","volume":"13","author":"Nadolskis","year":"2024","journal-title":"Transl. Vis. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"066021","DOI":"10.1088\/1741-2552\/ad94a4","article-title":"An audiovisual cognitive optimization strategy guided by salient object ranking for intelligent visual prosthesis systems","volume":"21","author":"Liang","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Neural Eng."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15215","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.nanolett.4c02604","article-title":"Solid-State Nanopores for Spatially Resolved Chemical Neuromodulation","volume":"24","author":"Vacca","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nano Lett."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"066005","DOI":"10.1088\/1741-2552\/ad8b6f","article-title":"Wide-angle simulated artificial vision enhances spatial navigation and object interaction in a naturalistic environment","volume":"21","author":"Hinrichs","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Neural Eng."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fernandez, E., and Robles, J.A. (2024). Advances and challenges in the development of visual prostheses. PLoS Biol., 22.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pbio.3002896"},{"key":"ref_55","first-page":"2450066","article-title":"Spatially Selective Retinal Ganglion Cell Activation Using Low Invasive Extraocular Temporal Interference Stimulation","volume":"25","author":"Song","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Neural Syst."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"368504241275372","DOI":"10.1177\/00368504241275372","article-title":"Design and simulation of artificial retinal stimulation IC with switched capacitor using Si nanowire optical properties","volume":"107","author":"Han","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Prog."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48395","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.4c12460","article-title":"Wireless and Opto-Stimulated Flexible Implants: Artificial Retina Constructed by Ferroelectric BiFeO3-BaTiO3\/P(VDF-TrFE) Composites","volume":"16","author":"Zhu","year":"2024","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46454","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.4c09303","article-title":"Artificial Amacrine Retinal Circuits","volume":"16","author":"Islam","year":"2024","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jensen, N., Charles Chen, Z., Kochnev Goldstein, A., and Palanker, D. (2024). Accelerated Simulation of Multi-Electrode Arrays Using Sparse and Low-Rank Matrix Techniques. bioRxiv.","DOI":"10.1101\/2024.07.29.605687"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"026055","DOI":"10.1088\/1741-2552\/ac65b2","article-title":"Ethical implications of visual neuropros-theses\u2014A systematic review","volume":"19","author":"Haselager","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Neural Eng."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1586\/17434440.2014.862494","article-title":"The functional performance of the Argus II retinal prosthesis","volume":"11","author":"Stronks","year":"2014","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Med. Devices"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1186\/s40942-023-00498-1","article-title":"An update on visual prosthesis","volume":"9","author":"Ramirez","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Retin. Vitr."},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"(2024, December 05). Available online: https:\/\/www.centropiaggio.unipi.it\/sites\/default\/files\/course\/material\/papers_visual_prostheses.pdf."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"063001","DOI":"10.1088\/1741-2552\/aca69d","article-title":"Towards a Smart Bionic Eye: AI-powered ar-tificial vision for the treatment of incurable blindness","volume":"19","author":"Beyeler","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Neural Eng."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-024-55173-2","article-title":"Modulating synaptic plasticity with metal-organic framework for information-filterable artificial retina","volume":"16","author":"Kim","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mehmood, A., Ko, J., Kim, H., and Kim, J. (2024). Optimizing Image Enhancement: Feature Engineering for Improved Classification in AI-Assisted Artificial Retinas. Sensors, 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/s24092678"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6385","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jpcb.3c01866","article-title":"Multiscale Simulations on Synaptic Signal Transduction of Energy-Harvesting P(VDF-TrFE)-Based Artificial Retina","volume":"127","author":"Guan","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Phys. Chem. B"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.nanolett.1c03240","article-title":"Integrated In-Sensor Computing Optoelectronic Device for Environment-Adaptable Artificial Retina Perception Application","volume":"22","author":"Meng","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nano Lett."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.accounts.4c00512","article-title":"Organic Iono-Optoelectronics: From Electrochromics to Artificial Retina","volume":"58","author":"Chen","year":"2025","journal-title":"Acc. Chem. Res."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moorthy, V.M., Rathnasami, J.D., and Srivastava, V.M. (2023). Design Optimization and Characterization with Fabrication of Nanomaterials-Based Photo Diode Cell for Subretinal Implant Application. Nanomaterials, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/nano13050934"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3086","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-024-47374-6","article-title":"A bionic self-driven retinomorphic eye with ionogel photosynaptic retina","volume":"15","author":"Luo","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3204","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.nanolett.4c00087","article-title":"Artificial Retina Based on Organic Heterojunction Transistors for Mobile Recognition","volume":"24","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nano Lett."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13794","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2023.e13794","article-title":"Modeling of dielectric resonator antenna array for retina photoreceptors","volume":"9","author":"NoroozOliaei","year":"2023","journal-title":"Heliyon"}],"container-title":["Biology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-7737\/14\/2\/134\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,8]],"date-time":"2025-10-08T10:37:41Z","timestamp":1759919861000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-7737\/14\/2\/134"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,28]]},"references-count":73,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,2]]}},"alternative-id":["biology14020134"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/biology14020134","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-7737"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-7737","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,28]]}}}