{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,29]],"date-time":"2026-10-29T22:46:57Z","timestamp":1793314017292,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":200,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,22]],"date-time":"2025-08-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1755820800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Institute of Eminence Grant of Banaras Hindu University (BHU-IoE)"},{"name":"Office of Director, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biology"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) is a malignant neoplasm of the oral epithelium that constitutes majority of oral cancers and is strongly associated with risk factors such as tobacco use and genetic alterations. Mortality rates for OSCC are high because many cases are misdiagnosed or identified at later stages, and treatment options are limited with high recurrence. Therefore, there is an urgent need for improved diagnostic and therapeutic strategies. OSCC tumor cells, like those in other solid malignancies, exhibit significant alterations in metabolic pathways and the immune microenvironment. These changes can serve as valuable biomarkers for early detection and as targets for innovative treatment strategies. This review summarizes the current understanding of metabolic and immunological biomarkers that are either currently in use for OSCC or are in different phases of clinical trials.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/biology14091109","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,22]],"date-time":"2025-08-22T11:50:31Z","timestamp":1755863431000},"page":"1109","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Exploring Metabolic and Immunological Biomarkers for Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma: Potential Targets for Precision Therapy"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"family":"Rajneesh","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre of Experimental Medicine & Surgery, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rahul","family":"Tiwari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre of Experimental Medicine & Surgery, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Vishal Kumar","family":"Singh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre of Experimental Medicine & Surgery, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Awnish","family":"Kumar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre of Experimental Medicine & Surgery, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sanjana","family":"Mehrotra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Human Genetics, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar 143005, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7956-9555","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vibhav","family":"Gautam","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre of Experimental Medicine & Surgery, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"J. 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