{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T01:43:44Z","timestamp":1760060624417,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":49,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,8]],"date-time":"2025-09-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1757289600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["32400303","32070371","23NSFSC1272","KCXTD2022-4","22kE022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["32400303","32070371","23NSFSC1272","KCXTD2022-4","22kE022"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Natural Science Foundation of Sichuan Province","award":["32400303","32070371","23NSFSC1272","KCXTD2022-4","22kE022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["32400303","32070371","23NSFSC1272","KCXTD2022-4","22kE022"]}]},{"name":"China West Normal University","award":["32400303","32070371","23NSFSC1272","KCXTD2022-4","22kE022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["32400303","32070371","23NSFSC1272","KCXTD2022-4","22kE022"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biology"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The present research investigates the fine-scale spatial genetic structure (SGS) and gene flow dynamics in the endangered relict tree Tetracentron sinense, a keystone species in China\u2019s montane ecosystems facing severe habitat fragmentation and genetic erosion. Utilizing genome-wide SNPs from 378 individuals across four natural populations (BMXS, MGFD, GLGS, SXFP), derived from ddRAD-seq, we quantified genetic diversity, SGS (Sp statistic), and dispersal patterns through spatial autocorrelation, parentage analysis, and age-class stratification. Results indicated critically low heterozygosity (observed heterozygosity, HO = 0.019\u20130.022) and high inbreeding coefficient (Fis = 0.147\u20130.304), with moderate SGS (Sp = 0.0076\u20130.021) suggesting restricted gene flow (effective dispersal radius: 11\u201332 m). Seed-mediated dispersal was predominant, but topography and rainfall constrained dispersal (&lt;5% beyond 50 m). Saplings exhibited stronger SGS, and the SXFP population experienced 100% sapling mortality due to inbreeding depression. Conservation efforts should prioritize assisted gene flow, habitat restoration, and ex situ sampling at distances greater than 115 m to preserve genetic diversity and adaptive potential. This study highlights the urgent need for genomics-informed conservation strategies in fragmented montane ecosystems.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/biology14091214","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,8]],"date-time":"2025-09-08T11:51:12Z","timestamp":1757332272000},"page":"1214","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Genetic Limitation and Conservation Implications in Tetracentron sinense: SNP-Based Analysis of Spatial Genetic Structure and Gene Flow"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Xiaojuan","family":"Liu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Southwest Wildlife Resources Conservation, Ministry of Education, Nanchong 637009, China"},{"name":"College of Life Sciences, China West Normal University, Nanchong 637009, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xue","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Southwest Wildlife Resources Conservation, Ministry of Education, Nanchong 637009, China"},{"name":"College of Life Sciences, China West Normal University, Nanchong 637009, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Hongyan","family":"Han","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Southwest Wildlife Resources Conservation, Ministry of Education, Nanchong 637009, China"},{"name":"College of Life Sciences, China West Normal University, Nanchong 637009, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ting","family":"Pan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Southwest Wildlife Resources Conservation, Ministry of Education, Nanchong 637009, China"},{"name":"College of Life Sciences, China West Normal University, Nanchong 637009, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Mengxing","family":"Jia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Southwest Wildlife Resources Conservation, Ministry of Education, Nanchong 637009, China"},{"name":"College of Life Sciences, China West Normal University, Nanchong 637009, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4823-8627","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xiaohong","family":"Gan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Southwest Wildlife Resources Conservation, Ministry of Education, Nanchong 637009, China"},{"name":"College of Life Sciences, China West Normal University, Nanchong 637009, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1186\/s13595-023-01217-4","article-title":"Factors determining fine-scale spatial genetic structure within coexisting populations of common beech (Fagus sylvatica L.), pedunculate oak (Quercus robur L.), and sessile oak (Q. petraea (Matt.) Liebl.)","volume":"81","author":"Sandurska","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ann. For. Sci."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2041","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-294X.2007.03685.x","article-title":"Small-scale spatial genetic structure in the Central Africanrainforest tree species Aucoumea klaineana: A stepwise approach to infer the impact of limitedgene dispersal, population history and habitat fragmentation","volume":"17","author":"Born","year":"2008","journal-title":"Mol. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"4363","article-title":"Genetic rescue by distant trees mitigates qualitative pollen limitation imposed by fine-scale spatial genetic structure","volume":"9","author":"Magdalena","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mol. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"e02382","article-title":"Fine-scale spatial genetic structure of the endangered plant Tetracentron sinense Oliv. (Trochodendraceae) in Leigong Mountain","volume":"41","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Glob. Ecol. Conserv."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1187","DOI":"10.1086\/321927","article-title":"Trochodendron and Nordenskioldia (Trochodendraceae) from the middle eocene of Washington State, U.S.A","volume":"162","author":"Pigg","year":"2001","journal-title":"Int. J. Plant Sci."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1007\/s13595-018-0752-4","article-title":"Low within-population genetic diversity and high genetic differentiation among populations of the endangered plant Tetracentron sinense Oliver revealed by inter-simple sequence repeat analysis","volume":"75","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ann. Sci."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-8748.2007.00581.x","article-title":"TETRACENTRON SINENSE: Tetracentraceae","volume":"24","author":"Rix","year":"2007","journal-title":"Curtis\u2019s Bot. Mag."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1186\/1999-3110-54-50","article-title":"Floral biology, breeding system and pollination ecology of an endangered tree Tetracentron sinense Oliv. (Trochodendraceae)","volume":"54","author":"Gan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Bot. Stud."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"177","article-title":"Effects of different altitudes and mother tree sizes on the biological characteristics of Tetracentron sinense seeds","volume":"37","author":"Li","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Plant Classif. Resour."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.17129\/botsci.1531","article-title":"Structural characteristics and niches of dominant tree populations in Tetracentron sinense communities: Implications for conservation","volume":"96","author":"Tian","year":"2018","journal-title":"Bot. Sci."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"123","article-title":"Phenotypic diversity in natural populations of an endangered plant Tetracentron sinense","volume":"74","author":"Gan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biochem. Syst. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"623","DOI":"10.1007\/s11676-020-01124-8","article-title":"Leaf phenotypic variation of endangered plant Tetracentron sinense Oliv. and influence of geographical and climatic factors","volume":"32","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. For. Res."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"851","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-294X.2010.04522.x","article-title":"Do microsatellites reflect genome-wide genetic diversity in natural populations? A comment on","volume":"19","author":"Ljungqvist","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mol. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fischer, M.C., Rellstab, C., Leuzinger, M., Roumet, M., Gugerli, F., and Shimizu, K.K. (2017). Estimating genomic diversity and population differentiation\u2014An empirical comparison of microsatellite and SNP variation in Arabidopsis halleri. BMC Genom., 18.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12864-016-3459-7"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1755-0998.2010.02943.x","article-title":"Application of SNPs for population genetics of nonmodel organisms: New opportunities and challenges","volume":"11","author":"Helyar","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mol. Ecol. Resour."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"460","DOI":"10.3390\/biology1030460","article-title":"Genotyping-by-sequencing in plants","volume":"1","author":"Deschamps","year":"2012","journal-title":"Biology"},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"859","article-title":"Genetic characteristics of Rhododendron hemsleyanum based on SNP molecular markers","volume":"44","author":"Cao","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Yunnan Univ."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1721","DOI":"10.1111\/jbi.12323","article-title":"Chloroplast phylogeography of the East Asian Arcto-Tertiary relict Tetracentron sinense (Trochodendraceae)","volume":"41","author":"Sun","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Biogeogr."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"641","DOI":"10.2307\/3236129","article-title":"Structure and tree-fall gap dynamics of old-growth Nothofagus forestsin Tierra del Fuego, Argentina","volume":"4","author":"Rebertus","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Veg. Sci."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.17129\/botsci.2178","article-title":"Population structure and quantitative characteristics of Tetracentron sinense (Trochodendraceae) in Leigong Mountain Nature Reserve, China","volume":"98","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Bot. Sci."},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"72","article-title":"An Efficient Macro-method of Genomic DNA Isolation from Actinidia chinensis Leaves","volume":"48","author":"Chen","year":"2004","journal-title":"Hereditas"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1754","DOI":"10.1093\/bioinformatics\/btp324","article-title":"Fast and accurate short read alignment with Burrows-Wheeler transform","volume":"25","author":"Li","year":"2009","journal-title":"Bioinformatics"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhu, P.Y., He, L.Y., Li, Y.Q., Huang, W.P., Xi, F., Lin, L., Zhi, Q.H., Zhang, W.W., Tang, Y.T., and Geng, C.Y. (2015). Correction: OTG-snpcaller: An Optimized Pipeline Based on TMAP and GATK for SNP Calling from Ion Torrent Data. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0138824"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3124","DOI":"10.1111\/mec.12354","article-title":"Stacks: An analysis tool set for population genomics","volume":"22","author":"Catchen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mol. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"618","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1471-8286.2002.00305.x","article-title":"SPAGeDi: A versatile computer program to analyse spatial genetic structureat the individual or population levels","volume":"2","author":"Hardy","year":"2002","journal-title":"Mol. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2537","DOI":"10.1093\/bioinformatics\/bts460","article-title":"GenAlEx 6.5: Genetic analysis in Excel. Population genetic software for teaching and research\u2014An update","volume":"28","author":"Peakall","year":"2012","journal-title":"Bioinformatics"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1420","DOI":"10.1002\/j.1537-2197.1995.tb12679.x","article-title":"Spatial genetic structure of a tropical understory shrub, Psychotria officinalis (Rubiaceae)","volume":"82","author":"Loiselle","year":"1995","journal-title":"Am. J. Bot."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1219","DOI":"10.1093\/genetics\/145.4.1219","article-title":"Genetic differentiation and estimation of gene flow from F-statistics under isolation by distance","volume":"145","author":"Rousset","year":"1997","journal-title":"Genetics"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.hdy.6800748","article-title":"Effect of gene flow on spatial genetic structure in the riparian canopy tree Cercidiphyllum japonicum revealed by microsatellite analysis","volume":"96","author":"Sato","year":"2006","journal-title":"Heredity"},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"5130","article-title":"Small-scale spatial patterns of genetic structure in Castanopsis eyrei populations based on autocorrelation analysis in the Tiantai Mountain of Zhejiang Province","volume":"31","author":"Qi","year":"2011","journal-title":"Acta Ecol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"921","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-294X.2004.02076.x","article-title":"New insights from fine-scale spatial genetic structure analyses in plant populations","volume":"13","author":"Vekemans","year":"2004","journal-title":"Mol. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5247","DOI":"10.1111\/mec.16107","article-title":"Fine-scale spatial genetic structure across the species range reflects recent colonization of high elevation habitats in silver fir (Abies alba Mill.)","volume":"30","author":"Major","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mol. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1093\/aob\/mcad083","article-title":"Adaptive divergence and genetic vulnerability of relict species under climate change: A case study of Pterocarya macroptera","volume":"132","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ann. Bot."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Yang, J. (2016). Development of EST-SSR Molecular Markers and Study on Its Small-Scale Spatial Genetic Structure of Endemic and Endangered Plant Pteroceltis tatarinowii. [Master\u2019s Dissertation, Nanjing University]."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Jiang, C.Y. (2022). A Study on the Small-Scale Spatial Genetic Structure of Micangshan Population in Fagus hayatae. [Master\u2019s Dissertation, China West Normal University]."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1038\/hdy.2017.48","article-title":"Comparative assessment of SSR and SNP markers for inferring the population genetic structure of the common fungus Armillaria cepistipes","volume":"119","author":"Tsykun","year":"2017","journal-title":"Heredity"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4421","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-294X.2011.05293.x","article-title":"Fragmentation can increase spatial genetic structure without decreasing pollen-mediated gene flow in a wind-pollinated tree","volume":"20","author":"Wang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mol. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"818","DOI":"10.1590\/S1415-47572012005000068","article-title":"Pollen and seed flow patterns of Carapa guianensis Aublet. (Meliaceae) in two types of Amazonian forest","volume":"35","author":"Martins","year":"2013","journal-title":"Genet. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"He, J. (2016). Population Dynamics and Small-Scale Spatial Genetic Structure of Ulmus langyaensis and Ulmus inebrians. [Master\u2019s Dissertation, Nanjing University]."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Gong, Y.M. (2024). Small-Scale Spatial Genetic Structure of Chinese Fir. [Master\u2019s Dissertation, Central South University of Forestry and Technology]."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"560","article-title":"The dependence of bee-mediated pollen and gene dispersal upon plant density","volume":"23","author":"Levin","year":"1969","journal-title":"Evolution"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"559","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-294X.2005.02785.x","article-title":"Fine-scale genetic structure and gene dispersal inferencesin 10 Neotropical tree species","volume":"15","author":"Hardy","year":"2006","journal-title":"Mol. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104648","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landurbplan.2022.104648","article-title":"Spatial genetic structure of two forest plant metapopulations in dynamic agricultural landscapes","volume":"231","author":"Annie","year":"2023","journal-title":"Landsc. Urban Plan."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bse.2012.06.005","article-title":"Long-distance gene dispersal inferred from spatial genetic structure in Handeliodendron bodinieri, an endangered tree from karst forest in southwest China","volume":"44","author":"He","year":"2012","journal-title":"Biochem. Syst. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1442-1984.2011.00365.x","article-title":"Topographic effects on fine-scale spatial genetic structure in Castanopsis chinensis Hance (Fagaceae)","volume":"28","author":"He","year":"2013","journal-title":"Plant Species Biol."},{"key":"ref_46","first-page":"375","article-title":"Microsatellite genetic diversity and spatial genetic structure of Liriodendron chinense populations in Langshan Mountain, Guizhou","volume":"22","author":"Yang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biodiversity"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pld.2016.03.001","article-title":"Fine-scale spatial genetic structure in predominantly selfing plants with limited seed dispersal: A rule or exception?","volume":"38","author":"Volis","year":"2016","journal-title":"Plant Divers."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"Guo, J.J. (2016). Spatial Genetic Structure and Process Analysis of Betula alnoides Natural Populations in a Heterogeneouslandscape. [Master\u2019s Dissertation, Chinese Academy of Forestry Sciences]."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8791","DOI":"10.1002\/ece3.4362","article-title":"Genetic diagnosis of a rare myrmecochorous species, Plagiorhegma dubium (Berberidaceae): Historical genetic bottlenecks and strong spatial structures among populations","volume":"8","author":"Rang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ecol. Evol."}],"container-title":["Biology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-7737\/14\/9\/1214\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T18:41:55Z","timestamp":1760035315000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-7737\/14\/9\/1214"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,8]]},"references-count":49,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9]]}},"alternative-id":["biology14091214"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/biology14091214","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-7737"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2079-7737"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,8]]}}}