{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,22]],"date-time":"2026-10-22T15:45:56Z","timestamp":1792683956514,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":66,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,1]],"date-time":"2026-01-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1767225600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Science Committee of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Republic of Kazakhstan","award":["AP26194421"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["AP26194421"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biology"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Uterine leiomyomas or fibroids, are non-cancerous smooth muscle proliferations of the uterus, occurring mostly in women of reproductive age. Their pathogenesis involves complex growth factor interactions that regulate cellular proliferation, extracellular matrix (ECM) remodeling, and angiogenesis in myometrium. Women affected by fibroids often have a range of consequences such as infertility, endometriosis, and dysmenorrhea. Several growth factors such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), transforming growth factor (TGF-\u03b2), and platelet-derived growth factors (PDGF) have long been described as key regulators of angiogenic and fibrotic activities in fibroid tissue. Moreover, we summarized updated information between 2015 and 2025 following strictly inclusion\/exclusion criteria and key research areas, including growth factors and its isoform-interaction, their roles within key signaling pathways, and the contribution of ECM deposition in uterine fibroids development and growth. Implementing growth factors in the clinical research field can develop new biomarkers and treatment options, focusing on effective and advanced management of uterine fibroids.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/biology15010092","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,2]],"date-time":"2026-01-02T17:51:21Z","timestamp":1767376281000},"page":"92","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Beyond VEGF and TGF-\u03b2: A Comprehensive Review of Growth Factor Pathways in the Pathophysiology of Uterine Leiomyomas"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-1511-6037","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nuray","family":"Rozmurat","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Medicine, Nazarbayev University, Zhanybek-Kerey Khans Street 5\/1, Astana 010000, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0034-2559","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sanja","family":"Terzic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Nazarbayev University, Zhanybek-Kerey Khans Street 5\/1, Astana 010000, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4110-2735","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Peng","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Obstetrics, Women\u2019s Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, No.1 Xueshi Road, Hangzhou 310006, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8344-7873","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gauri","family":"Bapayeva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinical Academic Department of Women\u2019s Health, CF \u201cUniversity Medical Center\u201d, Turan Ave. 32, Astana 010000, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1405-2245","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kuralay","family":"Kongrtay","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinical Academic Department of Women\u2019s Health, CF \u201cUniversity Medical Center\u201d, Turan Ave. 32, Astana 010000, Kazakhstan"},{"name":"Department of Surgery, School of Medicine, Nazarbayev University, Zhanybek-Kerey Khans Street 5\/1, Astana 010000, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1270-1886","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Matthew Naanlep","family":"Tanko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Nazarbayev University, Zhanybek-Kerey Khans Street 5\/1, Astana 010000, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3914-5154","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Milan","family":"Terzic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinical Academic Department of Women\u2019s Health, CF \u201cUniversity Medical Center\u201d, Turan Ave. 32, Astana 010000, Kazakhstan"},{"name":"Department of Surgery, School of Medicine, Nazarbayev University, Zhanybek-Kerey Khans Street 5\/1, Astana 010000, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1947","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.00010.2024","article-title":"Uterine Fibroids","volume":"105","author":"Bulun","year":"2025","journal-title":"Physiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1779","DOI":"10.7150\/ijms.75203","article-title":"The Potential of Transforming Growth Factor-Beta Inhibitor and Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor Inhibitor as Therapeutic Agents for Uterine Leiomyoma","volume":"19","author":"Park","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yerezhepbayeva, M., Terzic, M., Aimagambetova, G., and Crape, B. (2022). Comparison of Two Invasive Non-Surgical Treatment Options for Uterine Myomas: Uterine Artery Embolization and Magnetic Resonance Guided High Intensity Focused Ultrasound\u2014Systematic Review. BMC Women\u2019s Health, 22.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12905-022-01627-y"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fertnstert.2024.04.041","article-title":"The Modern Management of Uterine Fibroids-Related Abnormal Uterine Bleeding","volume":"122","author":"Vannuccini","year":"2024","journal-title":"Fertil. Steril."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"678","DOI":"10.1210\/endrev\/bnab039","article-title":"Comprehensive Review of Uterine Fibroids: Developmental Origin, Pathogenesis, and Treatment","volume":"43","author":"Yang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Endocr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1608","DOI":"10.1007\/s43032-022-01126-3","article-title":"Uterine Fibroids, Perceived Stress, and Menstrual Distress: A Key Role of Heavy Menstrual Bleeding","volume":"30","author":"Vannuccini","year":"2023","journal-title":"Reprod. Sci."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Akhatova, A., Aimagambetova, G., Bapayeva, G., Lagan\u00e0, A.S., Chiantera, V., Oppelt, P., Sarria-Santamera, A., and Terzic, M. (2023). Reproductive and Obstetric Outcomes after UAE, HIFU, and TFA of Uterine Fibroids: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph20054480"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.4103\/GMIT.GMIT_50_19","article-title":"Evaluation of Uterine Artery Embolization on Myoma Shrinkage: Results from a Large Cohort Analysis","volume":"8","author":"Ukybassova","year":"2019","journal-title":"Gynecol. Minim. Invasive Ther."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tinelli, A., Vinciguerra, M., Malvasi, A., Andji\u0107, M., Babovi\u0107, I., and Spari\u0107, R. (2021). Uterine Fibroids and Diet. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18031066"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vafaei, S., Alkhrait, S., Yang, Q., Ali, M., and Al-Hendy, A. (2024). Empowering strategies for Lifestyle interventions, Diet modifications, and Environmental Practices for Uterine Fibroid Prevention; unveiling the LIFE UP awareness. Nutrients, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu16060807"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2288225","DOI":"10.1080\/01443615.2023.2288225","article-title":"Modifiable prognostic factors in uterine fibroid development: A systematic review of literature","volume":"44","author":"Keizer","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Obstet. Gynaecol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Martire, F.G., Costantini, E., Ianes, I., d\u2019Abate, C., De Bonis, M., Capria, G., Piccione, E., and Andreoli, A. (2025). Nutrition and Uterine Fibroids: Clinical Impact and Emerging Therapeutic Perspectives. J. Clin. Med., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm14207140"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Qu, Y., Chen, L., Guo, S., Liu, Y., and Wu, H. (2023). Genetic liability to multiple factors and uterine leiomyoma risk: A Mendelian randomization study. Front. Endocrinol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2023.1133260"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"\u0160i\u0161ljagi\u0107, D., Bla\u017eeti\u0107, S., Heffer, M., Vranje\u0161 Dela\u0107, M., and Muller, A. (2024). The Interplay of Uterine Health and Obesity: A Comprehensive Review. Biomedicines, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines12122801"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1136\/jech-2019-213364","article-title":"Association between obesity and the risk of uterine fibroids: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"75","author":"Qin","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Epidemiol. Community Health"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, Y., Pan, M., Zhu, W., Luo, X., and Liang, X. (2025). Association between blood heavy metals exposure with uterine fibroids among American women: A cross-sectional analysis from NHANES data. BMC Women\u2019s Health, 25.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12905-025-03596-4"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bpobgyn.2017.09.004","article-title":"Epidemiology and Risk Factors of Uterine Fibroids Elsevier","volume":"46","author":"Pavone","year":"2018","journal-title":"Best. Pract. Res. Clin. Obstet. Gynaecol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1016\/S1701-2163(15)30338-8","article-title":"The Management of Uterine Leiomyomas","volume":"37","author":"Vilos","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Obstet. Gynaecol. Can."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ciebiera, M., W\u0142odarczyk, M., Wrzosek, M., M\u0119czekalski, B., Nowicka, G., \u0141ukaszuk, K., Ciebiera, M., S\u0142abuszewska-J\u00f3\u017awiak, A., and Jakiel, G. (2017). Role of Transforming Growth Factor \u03b2 in Uterine Fibroid Biology. Int. J. Med. Sci., 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms18112435"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.2119\/molmed.2014.00053","article-title":"Signaling Pathways in Leiomyoma: Understanding Pathobiology and Implications for Therapy","volume":"21","author":"Borahay","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1235","DOI":"10.1177\/1933719116678686","article-title":"Estrogen Receptors and Signaling in Fibroids: Role in Pathobiology and Therapeutic Implications","volume":"24","author":"Borahay","year":"2017","journal-title":"Reprod. Sci."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ciebiera, M., W\u0142odarczyk, M., Zgliczy\u0144ska, M., \u0141ukaszuk, K., M\u0119czekalski, B., Kobierzycki, C., \u0141ozi\u0144ski, T., and Jakiel, G. (2018). The Role of Tumor Necrosis Factor \u03b1 in the Biology of Uterine Fibroids and the Related Symptoms. Int. J. Med. Sci., 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms19123869"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aimagambetova, G., Bapayeva, G., Ukybassova, T., Zemlyanskiy, V., Gusmanov, A., and Terzic, M. (2024). The Role of VEGF and TGF-\u03b2 Blood Levels for Fibroid Shrinkage, Menorrhagia Score, and Quality of Life Improvement after Uterine Artery Embolization for Uterine Fibroids: A Study Protocol. Front. Med., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2024.1382822"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bpobgyn.2015.08.018","article-title":"Growth Factors and Pathogenesis","volume":"34","author":"Islam","year":"2016","journal-title":"Best. Pract. Res. Clin. Obstet. Gynaecol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"166","DOI":"10.17772\/gp\/60979","article-title":"Expression of VEGF Isoforms and Their Receptors in Uterine Myomas","volume":"87","author":"Plewka","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ginekol. Pol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, X., Bove, A.M., Simone, G., and Ma, B. (2020). Molecular Bases of VEGFR-2-Mediated Physiological Function and Pathological Role. Front. Cell Dev. Biol., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcell.2020.599281"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R1","DOI":"10.1530\/REP-21-0087","article-title":"Vascular Biology of Uterine Fibroids: Connecting Fibroids and Vascular Disorders","volume":"162","author":"Kirschen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Reproduction"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Navarro, A., Bariani, M.V., Yang, Q., and Al-Hendy, A. (2021). Understanding the Impact of Uterine Fibroids on Human Endometrium Function. Front. Cell Dev. Biol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcell.2021.633180"},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"100097","article-title":"The Role of Extracellular Matrix in Angiogenesis: Beyond Adhesion and Structure","volume":"15","author":"Libby","year":"2024","journal-title":"Biomater. Biosyst."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-025-02249-0","article-title":"Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor Signaling in Health and Disease: From Molecular Mechanisms to Therapeutic Perspectives","volume":"10","author":"Lee","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sig. Transduct. Target. Ther."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bowler, E., and Oltean, S. (2019). Alternative Splicing in Angiogenesis. Int. J. Med. Sci., 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms20092067"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"791","DOI":"10.1007\/s00280-015-2701-3","article-title":"A Pharmacokinetic Binding Model for Bevacizumab and VEGF165 in Colorectal Cancer Patients","volume":"75","author":"Panoilia","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cancer Chemother. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3704","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-17525-6","article-title":"Therapeutic Paradigm of Dual Targeting VEGF and PDGF for Effectively Treating FGF-2 off-Target Tumors","volume":"11","author":"Hosaka","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"645","DOI":"10.3892\/etm.2015.2924","article-title":"IGF-1 and VEGF Can Be Used as Prognostic Indicators for Patients with Uterine Fibroids Treated with Uterine Artery Embolization","volume":"11","author":"Mu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Exp. Ther. Med."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baranov, V.S., Osinovskaya, N.S., and Yarmolinskaya, M.I. (2019). Pathogenomics of Uterine Fibroids Development. Int. J. Med. Sci., 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms20246151"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, Q., and Al-Hendy, A. (2023). Update on the Role and Regulatory Mechanism of Extracellular Matrix in the Pathogenesis of Uterine Fibroids. Int. J. Med. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24065778"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-024-01764-w","article-title":"TGF-\u03b2 Signaling in Health, Disease and Therapeutics","volume":"9","author":"Deng","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sig. Transduct. Target. Ther."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fertnstert.2024.02.046","article-title":"Functional evidence for two distinct mechanisms of action of progesterone and selective progesterone receptor modulator on uterine leiomyomas","volume":"122","author":"Milewska","year":"2024","journal-title":"Fertil. Steril."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"a022053","DOI":"10.1101\/cshperspect.a022053","article-title":"Signaling Receptors for TGF-\u03b2 Family Members","volume":"8","author":"Heldin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Biol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1093\/humupd\/dmx032","article-title":"Extracellular Matrix in Uterine Leiomyoma Pathogenesis: A Potential Target for Future Therapeutics","volume":"24","author":"Islam","year":"2018","journal-title":"Hum. Reprod. Update"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3513","DOI":"10.1007\/s11010-021-04174-6","article-title":"Wnt\/\u03b2-Catenin Signaling Pathway in Uterine Leiomyoma: Role in Tumor Biology and Targeting Opportunities","volume":"476","author":"Saha","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mol. Cell Biochem."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ardizzone, A., Bova, V., Casili, G., Repici, A., Lanza, M., Giuffrida, R., Colarossi, C., Mare, M., Cuzzocrea, S., and Esposito, E. (2023). Role of Basic Fibroblast Growth Factor in Cancer: Biological Activity, Targeted Therapies, and Prognostic Value. Cells, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells12071002"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15968","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-72992-7","article-title":"bFGF Blockade Reduces Intraplaque Angiogenesis and Macrophage Infiltration in Atherosclerotic Vein Graft Lesions in ApoE3*Leiden Mice","volume":"10","author":"Parma","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Machado-Lopez, A., Sim\u00f3n, C., and Mas, A. (2021). Molecular and Cellular Insights into the Development of Uterine Fibroids. Int. J. Med. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22168483"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rmed.2019.08.003","article-title":"VEGF and FGF-2: Promising Targets for the Treatment of Respiratory Disorders","volume":"156","author":"Laddha","year":"2019","journal-title":"Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2022.01.113","article-title":"Targeting the PDGF\/PDGFR Signaling Pathway for Cancer Therapy: A Review","volume":"202","author":"Zou","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mariadas, H., Chen, J.-H., and Chen, K.-H. (2025). The Molecular and Cellular Mechanisms of Endometriosis: From Basic Pathophysiology to Clinical Implications. Int. J. Med. Sci., 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26062458"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103989","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drudis.2024.103989","article-title":"Current Status of Drugs Targeting PDGF\/PDGFR","volume":"29","author":"Ai","year":"2024","journal-title":"Drug Discov. Today"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.archoralbio.2017.09.019","article-title":"Role of PDGF-BB in Proliferation, Differentiation and Maintaining Stem Cell Properties of PDL Cells in Vitro","volume":"85","author":"Mihaylova","year":"2018","journal-title":"Arch. Oral. Biol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e42995","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0000000000042995","article-title":"Platelet-Derived Growth Factor (PDGF) and Its Impact in Fibroid Pathogenesis: A Narrative Review","volume":"104","author":"Obeagu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Medicine"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Szydlowska-Gladysz, J., Gorecka, A.E., Stepien, J., Rysz, I., and Ben-Skowronek, I. (2024). IGF-1 and IGF-2 as Molecules Linked to Causes and Consequences of Obesity from Fetal Life to Adulthood: A Systematic Review. Int. J. Med. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25073966"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.3892\/ijmm.2025.5636","article-title":"Contribution of Insulin-like Growth Factor-1 to Tendon Repair","volume":"56","author":"Chen","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_53","first-page":"637","article-title":"Review: The Role of Insulin-like Growth Factor-1 Signaling Pathways in Uterine Leiomyoma","volume":"29","author":"Gkioka","year":"2015","journal-title":"In Vivo"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhu, Y., Chen, L., Song, B., Cui, Z., Chen, G., Yu, Z., and Song, B. (2022). Insulin-like Growth Factor-2 (IGF-2) in Fibrosis. Biomolecules, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/biom12111557"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1588","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2016-3497","article-title":"Paracrine pathways in uterine leiomyoma stem cells involve insulinlike growth factor 2 and insulin receptor A","volume":"102","author":"Moravek","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"T11","DOI":"10.1530\/JME-17-0254","article-title":"40 years of IGF1: IGF-binding proteins","volume":"61","author":"Bach","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Mol. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1576","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fertnstert.2020.12.022","article-title":"Sphingosine 1-Phosphate Signaling in Uterine Fibroids: Implication in Activin A pro-Fibrotic Effect","volume":"115","author":"Bernacchioni","year":"2021","journal-title":"Fertil. Steril."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, Y., Yang, C., Ge, S., Wang, L., Zhang, J., and Yang, P. (2020). EphB4\/TNFR2\/ERK\/MAPK Signaling Pathway Comprises a Signaling Axis to Mediate the Positive Effect of TNF-\u03b1 on Osteogenic Differentiation. BMC Mol. Cell Biol., 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12860-020-00273-2"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1093\/humrep\/deu300","article-title":"Differential Effects of Tumor Necrosis Factor-\u03b1 on Matrix Metalloproteinase-2 Expression in Human Myometrial and Uterine Leiomyoma Smooth Muscle Cells","volume":"30","author":"Wang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Hum. Reprod."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Regidor, P.-A., Mayr, M., Santos, F.G., Calvo, B.L., Gutierrez, R., and Rizo, J.M. (2025). Narrative Review of Chronic Inflammation in Uterine Myoma: Lack of Specialized Pro-Resolving Lipid Mediators (SPMs) and Vitamin D as a Potential Reason for the Development of Uterine Fibroids. Biomedicines, 13.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202505.1226.v1"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Mezer, M., Dolata, N., Markowska, J., Krzy\u017caniak, M., Naskr\u0119t-Grochowalska, A., \u017burawski, J., and Markowska, A. (2025). Immunohistochemical Expression of IL-1\u03b2, IL-6, and NF-\u039a\u03b2 in Fibroids. Front. Immunol., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2025.1571585"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paed.2023.05.001","article-title":"Clinical Uses of Recombinant Haematopoietic Growth Factors in Paediatrics","volume":"33","author":"Mullen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Paediatr. Child Health"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1097\/GCO.0000000000000650","article-title":"Non-Hormonal Mediators of Uterine Fibroid Growth","volume":"32","author":"Cetin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2407","DOI":"10.1093\/humrep\/det265","article-title":"Vitamin D3 Inhibits Expression and Activities of Matrix Metalloproteinase-2 and -9 in Human Uterine Fibroid Cells","volume":"28","author":"Halder","year":"2013","journal-title":"Hum. Reprod."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2782","DOI":"10.1002\/jcb.27681","article-title":"Extracellular Matrix (ECM) Stiffness and Degradation as Cancer Drivers","volume":"120","author":"Najafi","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Cell. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"bvaf028","DOI":"10.1210\/jendso\/bvaf028","article-title":"Lysyl Oxidases Are Necessary for Myometrial Contractility and On-Time Parturition in Mice","volume":"9","author":"Ouellette","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Endocr. Soc."}],"container-title":["Biology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-7737\/15\/1\/92\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,5]],"date-time":"2026-01-05T16:21:29Z","timestamp":1767630089000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-7737\/15\/1\/92"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,1]]},"references-count":66,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1]]}},"alternative-id":["biology15010092"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/biology15010092","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-7737"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-7737","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,1]]}}}