{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,26]],"date-time":"2026-02-26T06:30:37Z","timestamp":1772087437384,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":34,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,21]],"date-time":"2026-02-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1771632000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Natural Science Foundation of Guangxi","award":["2025GXNSFAA069872"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2025GXNSFAA069872"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["32260914"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["32260914"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"name":"Beihai Science and Technology Program Project","award":["2023174002"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023174002"]}]},{"name":"Hainan Provincial Key R&D Programme","award":["ZDYF2024XDNY175"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ZDYF2024XDNY175"]}]},{"name":"Hainan Provincial Key R&D Programme","award":["ZDYF2025XDNY088"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ZDYF2025XDNY088"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100017607","name":"Shenzhen Basic Research Project","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["JCYJ20240813111707010"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JCYJ20240813111707010"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100017607","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"name":"Guangdong Science and Technology Plan Programme","award":["2024B1212050006"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024B1212050006"]}]},{"name":"Guangzhou Science and Technology Project","award":["202206010133"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["202206010133"]}]},{"name":"Guangzhou Science and Technology Project","award":["2023B03J00165"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023B03J00165"]}]},{"name":"Guangzhou Science and Technology Project","award":["2024B03J1226"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024B03J1226"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100021171","name":"Guangdong Basic and Applied Basic Research Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["2023A1515010944"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023A1515010944"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100021171","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100021171","name":"Guangdong Basic and Applied Basic Research Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["2022A1515010203"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022A1515010203"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100021171","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"name":"Research on breeding technology of candidate species for Guangdong modern marine ranching","award":["2024-MRB-00-001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024-MRB-00-001"]}]},{"name":"National Marine Genetic Resource Center","award":["CARS49"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CARS49"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002858","name":"China Postdoctoral Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["2024M763365"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024M763365"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002858","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"name":"Science and Technology Planning Project of Guangdong Province, China","award":["2023B1212060047"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023B1212060047"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biology"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Bivalves possess a diverse array of photoreceptive organs that are significant for their evolutionary success and systematic classification. Giant clams are the largest bivalve mollusks, with mantle tissue permanently extended in nature to maintain symbiosis with zooxanthellae and perceive environmental cues. Eyes serve as critical sensory organs for these organisms, yet the structural and functional characteristics of tridacnine eyes remain inadequately understood. This study systematically investigated the ocular traits and visual resolution of three ecologically distinct giant clam species (Tridacna crocea, T. squamosa, T. maxima) using morphometric analysis, hematoxylin-eosin (HE) staining, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and grating stimulation assays. Significant interspecific differences were observed in eye count, diameter, and pupil-to-eye ratio (PER): T. maxima exhibited the highest mean eye count (221 \u00b1 8), T. squamosa the largest mean eye diameter (0.490 \u00b1 0.082 mm), and T. crocea the highest mean PER (0.363 \u00b1 0.041). Eyes were numerically symmetric on the left and right mantles but positionally asymmetric, showing random distribution patterns along the mantle margin without fixed corresponding locations across species. All three species possessed typical pinhole eyes lacking lenses and retinas, primarily composed of filler cells, receptor cells, and sparse neurons, with symbiotic zooxanthellae distributed in the surrounding mantle tissue. Grating stimulation assays revealed resolvable stripe periods of 5.82\u201311.64\u00b0 (T. crocea), 8.62\u201313.16\u00b0 (T. squamosa), and 10.15\u201312.26\u00b0 (T. maxima), confirming T. crocea as the species with the highest visual resolution. These ocular variations are inferred to reflect adaptive evolution driven by ecological niches and habitat-specific factors (water depth or light intensity), while the simplified pinhole morphology is consistent with their sedentary lifestyle and metabolic dependence on symbiotic zooxanthellae. These ocular variations provide potential morphological markers for the systematic classification of Tridacninae and offer valuable insights for researchers studying the evolutionary plasticity of bivalve visual systems.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/biology15040363","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,23]],"date-time":"2026-02-23T10:00:52Z","timestamp":1771840852000},"page":"363","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Comparative Analysis of Eye Traits and Visual Resolution Among Three Hatchery-Bred Giant Clams (Tridacna crocea, T. squamosa, T. maxima)"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Wanjie","family":"Liu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Aquatic Healthy Breeding and Nutrition Regulation of Guangxi Universities, College of Animal Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Breeding Biotechnology and Sustainable Aquaculture (CAS), Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-Resources and Ecology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Marine Biology, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510301, China"},{"name":"Shenzhen Institute of Guangdong Ocean University, Shenzhen 518120, China"},{"name":"Agro-Tech Extension Center of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou 510145, China"},{"name":"Daya Bay Marine Biology Research Station, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen 518124, China"},{"name":"Hainan Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Biotechnology, Hainan Sanya Marine Ecosystem National Observation and Research Station, Sanya 572024, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jun","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Breeding Biotechnology and Sustainable Aquaculture (CAS), Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-Resources and Ecology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Marine Biology, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510301, China"},{"name":"Shenzhen Institute of Guangdong Ocean University, Shenzhen 518120, China"},{"name":"Agro-Tech Extension Center of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou 510145, China"},{"name":"Daya Bay Marine Biology Research Station, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen 518124, China"},{"name":"Hainan Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Biotechnology, Hainan Sanya Marine Ecosystem National Observation and Research Station, Sanya 572024, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-6108-994X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zhen","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Aquatic Healthy Breeding and Nutrition Regulation of Guangxi Universities, College of Animal Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Breeding Biotechnology and Sustainable Aquaculture (CAS), Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-Resources and Ecology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Marine Biology, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510301, China"},{"name":"Shenzhen Institute of Guangdong Ocean University, Shenzhen 518120, China"},{"name":"Agro-Tech Extension Center of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou 510145, China"},{"name":"Daya Bay Marine Biology Research Station, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen 518124, China"},{"name":"Hainan Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Biotechnology, Hainan Sanya Marine Ecosystem National Observation and Research Station, Sanya 572024, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jinkuan","family":"Wei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Breeding Biotechnology and Sustainable Aquaculture (CAS), Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-Resources and Ecology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Marine Biology, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510301, China"},{"name":"Daya Bay Marine Biology Research Station, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen 518124, China"},{"name":"Hainan Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Biotechnology, Hainan Sanya Marine Ecosystem National Observation and Research Station, Sanya 572024, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-9388-8092","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jingyue","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Aquatic Healthy Breeding and Nutrition Regulation of Guangxi Universities, College of Animal Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Breeding Biotechnology and Sustainable Aquaculture (CAS), Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-Resources and Ecology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Marine 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Laboratory of Breeding Biotechnology and Sustainable Aquaculture (CAS), Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-Resources and Ecology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Marine Biology, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510301, China"},{"name":"Shenzhen Institute of Guangdong Ocean University, Shenzhen 518120, China"},{"name":"Agro-Tech Extension Center of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou 510145, China"},{"name":"Daya Bay Marine Biology Research Station, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen 518124, China"},{"name":"Hainan Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Biotechnology, Hainan Sanya Marine Ecosystem National Observation and Research Station, Sanya 572024, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Haitao","family":"Ma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Breeding Biotechnology and Sustainable Aquaculture (CAS), Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-Resources and Ecology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Marine Biology, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510301, China"},{"name":"Shenzhen Institute of Guangdong Ocean University, Shenzhen 518120, China"},{"name":"Agro-Tech Extension Center of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou 510145, China"},{"name":"Daya Bay Marine Biology Research Station, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen 518124, China"},{"name":"Hainan Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Biotechnology, Hainan Sanya Marine Ecosystem National Observation and Research Station, Sanya 572024, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ziniu","family":"Yu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Breeding Biotechnology and Sustainable Aquaculture (CAS), Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-Resources and Ecology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Marine Biology, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 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Laboratory of Breeding Biotechnology and Sustainable Aquaculture (CAS), Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-Resources and Ecology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Marine Biology, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510301, China"},{"name":"Shenzhen Institute of Guangdong Ocean University, Shenzhen 518120, China"},{"name":"Agro-Tech Extension Center of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou 510145, China"},{"name":"Daya Bay Marine Biology Research Station, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen 518124, China"},{"name":"Hainan Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Biotechnology, Hainan Sanya Marine Ecosystem National Observation and Research Station, Sanya 572024, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hawkins, S.J., Evans, A.J., Dale, A.C., Firth, L.B., Hughes, D.J., and Smith, I.P. 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