{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,22]],"date-time":"2026-10-22T16:42:35Z","timestamp":1792687355305,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":166,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,3]],"date-time":"2026-04-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1775174400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Deanship of Graduate Studies and Scientific Research at Qassim University","award":["QU-APC-2026"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["QU-APC-2026"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biology"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Malaria remains a major public health issue worldwide and a repeated cause of illness and death in tropical and subtropical areas. It is caused by protozoan parasites of the genus Plasmodium and transmitted through bites of infected female Anopheles mosquitoes, but it can also be transmitted via blood transfusions, organ transplants, and congenitally from mother to child. Despite decades of intervention efforts, millions of new cases and hundreds of thousands of deaths still occur each year, primarily in low- and middle-income countries. This review summarizes current epidemiological data on the global burden of malaria, mainly from the World Health Organization\u2019s (WHO) World Malaria Report 2024 and Global Burden of Disease estimates. It brings together the latest evidence on worldwide malaria epidemiology, regional trends, determinants, and control strategies, with a particular focus on socio-economic factors, intervention methods, and emerging challenges such as drug resistance, climate change, and limited funding. Disease prevention and management require global, multifactorial approaches that are tailored to the local environment. Strengthening health education with locally relevant knowledge is important to improving outcomes in primary health prevention, secondary health prevention, and tertiary health prevention. The review concludes with a discussion of policy priorities needed in the future to meet the WHO Global Technical Strategy goals for malaria elimination by 2030.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/biology15070575","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,6]],"date-time":"2026-04-06T04:10:27Z","timestamp":1775448627000},"page":"575","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Malaria in the 21st Century: Global Disease Burden, Epidemiological Insights, and Strategic Control Approaches"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6863-469X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Basmah F.","family":"Alharbi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Basic Health Sciences, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Qassim University, Buraydah 52571, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-9550-7150","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mawahib A.","family":"Ahmed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Laboratories, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Qassim University, Buraydah 51452, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s40101-020-00251-9","article-title":"Plasmodium\u2014A Brief Introduction to the Parasites Causing Human Malaria and Their Basic Biology","volume":"40","author":"Sato","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Physiol. Anthropol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tseha, S.T. (2021). Plasmodium Species and Drug Resistance. Plasmodium Species and Drug Resistance, IntechOpen.","DOI":"10.5772\/intechopen.98344"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1417","DOI":"10.1002\/jobm.202200316","article-title":"Global Scenario of Plasmodium Vivax Occurrence and Resistance Pattern","volume":"62","author":"Kaur","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Basic Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Acford-Palmer, H. (2024). A Genomic Investigation into Three Malaria Vectors: An. Darlingi, An. Funestus, and An. Stephensi. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of London]."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Singh, H., Akhtar, N., and Gupta, S.K. (2024). Biology of Mosquitoes. Mosquitoes: Biology, Pathogenicity and Management, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-97-4163-2_5"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"ElShewy, K. (2024). Blood and Lymphatic Parasites. Medical Parasitology: A Body System Approach, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-64736-9"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sanyaolu, A., Marinkovic, A., Prakash, S., Balendra, V., Shazley, O., Gardellini, T., Jan, A., Younis, K., Okorie, C., and Izurieta, R. (2025). Emerging Molecular Mechanisms in Malaria Pathogenesis and Novel Therapeutic Approaches: A Focus on P. falciparum Malaria. Biomolecules, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/biom15071038"},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"147","article-title":"Life Cycle Dynamics of Mosquitoes under Varied Environmental Conditions","volume":"14","author":"Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Mosq. Res."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16734","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-67452-5","article-title":"Influence of Environmental, Geographic, Socio-Demographic, and Epidemiological Factors on Presence of Malaria at the Community Level in Two Continents","volume":"14","author":"Villena","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Thellier, M., Gemegah, A.A.J., and Tantaoui, I. (2024). Global Fight against Malaria: Goals and Achievements 1900\u20132022. J. Clin. Med., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm13195680"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, J., Tian, X., Guo, D., Gu, H., Duan, Y., and Li, D. (2025). Global Trends and Burdens of Neglected Tropical Diseases and Malaria from 1990 to 2021: A Systematic Analysis of the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021. BMC Public Health, 25.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-025-22477-x"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-025-05492-6","article-title":"The Burden of Malaria in East Africa: Prevalence, Risk Factors, and Control Strategies","volume":"24","author":"Bashir","year":"2025","journal-title":"Malar. J."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e39010","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0000000000039010","article-title":"Adapting to the Shifting Landscape: Implications of Climate Change for Malaria Control: A Review","volume":"103","author":"Obeagu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Medicine"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"979","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(25)00038-8","article-title":"Mapping the global prevalence, incidence, and mortality of Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax malaria, 2000\u201322: A spatial and temporal modelling study","volume":"405","author":"Weiss","year":"2025","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Patel, P., Bagada, A., and Vadia, N. (2024). Epidemiology and Current Trends in Malaria. Rising Contag. Dis. Basics Manag. Treat., 261\u2013282.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781394188741.ch20"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"a025452","DOI":"10.1101\/cshperspect.a025452","article-title":"Biology of Malaria Transmission","volume":"7","author":"Meibalan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Med."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e079776","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2023-079776","article-title":"Public Health Surveillance through Community Health Workers: A Scoping Review of Evidence from 25 Low-Income and Middle-Income Countries","volume":"14","author":"Alhassan","year":"2024","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"658","DOI":"10.1097\/MS9.0000000000002925","article-title":"Assessing the Influence of Rapid Diagnostic Test (RDT) Accuracy on Malaria Misdiagnosis and Antimalarial Resistance in Nigeria","volume":"87","author":"Okereke","year":"2025","journal-title":"Ann. Med. Surg."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1728","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(22)00442-X","article-title":"Efficacy and Immunogenicity of R21\/Matrix-M Vaccine against Clinical Malaria after 2 Years\u2019 Follow-up in Children in Burkina Faso: A Phase 1\/2b Randomised Controlled Trial","volume":"22","author":"Datoo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"561","DOI":"10.1007\/s44197-024-00228-2","article-title":"Current Status of Malaria Control and Elimination in Africa: Epidemiology, Diagnosis, Treatment, Progress and Challenges","volume":"14","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Epidemiol. Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"7","article-title":"Cerebral Malaria in African Children: Clinical and Ophthalmic Prognostic Indicators, Management, and Long-Term Outcomes\u2014A Narrative Review","volume":"4","author":"Alabi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Integr. J. Med. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-025-05364-z","article-title":"Trends of Malaria Incidence, Prevalence, Mortality, and Disability-Adjusted Life Years in Eastern Africa Region from 1990 to 2021: A Systematic Analysis from Global Burden of Disease 2021 Study","volume":"24","author":"Zewale","year":"2025","journal-title":"Malar. J."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Monden, M. (2025). Analysis of the Effectiveness of Community-Based Interventions for Climate-Resilient Malaria Control in Busia County, Kenya. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Hamburg University]."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"WHO (2023). World Malaria World Malaria Report Report, WHO."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"1351","article-title":"2023 World Malaria Report (Status of World Malaria in 2022)","volume":"17","author":"Shin","year":"2024","journal-title":"Public Health Wkly. Rep."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2024). Global Malaria Programme Operational Strategy 2024\u20132030, World Health Organization."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-024-05235-z","article-title":"Routine Malaria Vaccination in Africa: A Step toward Malaria Eradication?","volume":"24","author":"Sibomana","year":"2025","journal-title":"Malar. J."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e40241","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0000000000040241","article-title":"Malaria Pervasiveness in Sub-Saharan Africa: Overcoming the Scuffle","volume":"103","author":"Alum","year":"2024","journal-title":"Medicine"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"334","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-024-05173-w","article-title":"Cost of Treating Severe Malaria in Children in Africa: A Systematic Literature Review","volume":"23","author":"Mori","year":"2024","journal-title":"Malar. J."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32027","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-83689-6","article-title":"Temporal Evolution of Insecticide Resistance and Bionomics in Anopheles funestus, a Key Malaria Vector in Uganda","volume":"14","author":"Oruni","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Amvongo-Adjia, N., Riveron, J.M., Wirsiy, E.L., Ndongmo, W.P.C., Njiokou, F., Wondji, C.S., and Wanji, S. (2025). Exploring Knockdown Resistance (Kdr) Mutation in Anopheles Gambiae and Anopheles Coluzzii Malaria Vectors in the Mountainous Plains Across the Cameroonian Great-West Domain. Preprint.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202510.0213.v1"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e591","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(24)00141-5","article-title":"The Emergence of Artemisinin Partial Resistance in Africa: How Do We Respond?","volume":"24","author":"Rosenthal","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lukole, E.A. (2025). Fight against Malaria: Investigating the Impact of Physical and Insecticidal Durability on Epidemiological Outcomes, as Well as Assessing Community Acceptability of, and Preferences for Dual-Active Ingredient Long-Lasting Insecticidal Nets in Tanzania. [Ph.D. Thesis, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine].","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-025-05723-w"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e491","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciaf212","article-title":"Performance of a Novel P. falciparum Rapid Diagnostic Test in Areas of Widespread Hrp2\/3 Gene Deletion","volume":"81","author":"Mandefro","year":"2025","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"e7","article-title":"How Climate Change Is Redrawing the Global Map of Vector-Borne Disease Transmission","volume":"1","author":"Akinlade","year":"2025","journal-title":"Betta Health Rep."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"254","DOI":"10.1186\/s12931-022-02170-y","article-title":"Challenges in the Diagnosis of Asthma in Children, What Are the Solutions? A Scoping Review of 3 Countries in Sub Saharan Africa","volume":"23","author":"Magwenzi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Respir. Res."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"613","DOI":"10.1007\/s13312-020-1888-5","article-title":"Malaria Elimination in India: Bridging the Gap between Control and Elimination","volume":"57","author":"Nema","year":"2020","journal-title":"Indian Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Christofferson, R.C., Parker, D.M., Overgaard, H.J., Hii, J., Devine, G., Wilcox, B.A., Nam, V.S., Abubakar, S., Boyer, S., and Boonnak, K. (2020). Current Vector Research Challenges in the Greater Mekong Subregion for Dengue, Malaria, and Other Vector-Borne Diseases: A Report from a Multisectoral Workshop March 2019. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0008302"},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Pendame, M.W. (2024). Effectiveness of Malaria Case Management in Under-Five Children by Community Health Workers in Thyolo and Chikwawa Districts in Malawi from 2017 to 2021. [Ph.D. Thesis, The University of Zambia]."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1186\/s40249-019-0524-x","article-title":"Are Malaria Elimination Efforts on Right Track? An Analysis of Gains Achieved and Challenges Ahead","volume":"8","author":"Dhiman","year":"2019","journal-title":"Infect. Dis. Poverty"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-017-1925-6","article-title":"Malaria in Brazil, Colombia, Peru and Venezuela: Current Challenges in Malaria Control and Elimination","volume":"16","author":"Recht","year":"2017","journal-title":"Malar. J."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"taab046","DOI":"10.1093\/jtm\/taab046","article-title":"Trends of the Global, Regional and National Incidence of Malaria in 204 Countries from 1990 to 2019 and Implications for Malaria Prevention","volume":"28","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Travel Med."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ortiz, D.I., Piche-Ovares, M., Romero-Vega, L.M., Wagman, J., and Troyo, A. (2021). The Impact of Deforestation, Urbanization, and Changing Land Use Patterns on the Ecology of Mosquito and Tick-Borne Diseases in Central America. Insects, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/insects13010020"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abreu-Fernandes, R.d., Almeida-de-Oliveira, N.K., de Lavigne Mello, A.R., Queiroz, L.T.d., Barros, J.d.A., Baptista, B.d.O., Oliveira-Ferreira, J., de Souza, R.M., Pratt-Riccio, L.R., and Brasil, P. (2024). Are Pvcrt-o and Pvmdr1 Gene Mutations Associated with Plasmodium Vivax Chloroquine-Resistant Parasites?. Biomedicines, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines12010141"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-025-05356-z","article-title":"Prevalence and Epidemiological Characteristics of Asymptomatic Malaria in Sucre, Venezuela: A 2022 Cross-Sectional Study","volume":"24","author":"Leyva","year":"2025","journal-title":"Malar. J."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"486","DOI":"10.1002\/ppp3.70099","article-title":"Prospective of Indigenous African Wild Food Plants in Alleviation of the Severe Iron Deficiency Anaemia in Sub-Saharan Africa","volume":"8","author":"Abdellatef","year":"2025","journal-title":"Plants People Planet"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Edrees, W.H., and Al-Shehari, W.A. (2025). A Retrospective Analysis of the Malaria Trend in Yemen over the Sixteen-Years, from 2006 to 2021. BMC Public Health, 25.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-025-21466-4"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"891","DOI":"10.1097\/MS9.0000000000001597","article-title":"Disaster after Disaster: The Outbreak of Infectious Diseases in Pakistan in the Wake of 2022 Floods","volume":"86","author":"Alied","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ann. Med. Surg."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-023-04654-8","article-title":"Defining Operational Research Priorities to Improve Malaria Control and Elimination in Sub-Saharan Africa: Results from a Country-Driven Research Prioritization Setting Process","volume":"22","author":"Tine","year":"2023","journal-title":"Malar. J."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Appleby, P. (2025). Climate Change and the Interconnectedness of All Things. The Overburdened Planet: Making Sense of Sustainability, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-032-01510-5"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1123","DOI":"10.1039\/D3SD00092C","article-title":"Point-of-Care Testing of Infectious Diseases: Recent Advances","volume":"2","author":"Shang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sens. Diagn."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Okore, W., Ouma, C., Okoth, R.O., Yeda, R., Ingasia, L.O., Mwakio, E.W., Ochora, D.O., Wakoli, D.M., Amwoma, J.G., and Chemwor, G.C. (2024). Increased Sensitivity of Malaria Parasites to Common Antimalaria Drugs after the Introduction of Artemether-Lumefantrine: Implication of Policy Change and Implementation of More Effective Drugs in Fight against Malaria. PLoS ONE, 19.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0298585"},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"Mulisa, D.D. (2021). Dissecting the Genetic Bases of Severe Malaria Resistance Using Genome-Wide and Post Genomewide Study Approaches. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Cape Town]."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"Gopinadhan, A. (2026, February 19). Investigating the Presence of Pfkelch Gene Mutations in Ugandan Children with Severe Malaria. Available online: https:\/\/scholarworks.indianapolis.iu.edu\/items\/ce72cb3c-da3d-411b-b1a2-046561c5ba79."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Balmer, A.J., White, N.F.D., \u00dcnl\u00fc, E.S., Lee, C., Pearson, R.D., Almagro-Garcia, J., and Ariani, C.V. (2024). Understanding the Global Spread of Artemisinin Resistance: Insights from over 100K Plasmodium Falciparum Samples. bioRxiv.","DOI":"10.1101\/2024.08.23.609367"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Eboumbou Moukoko, C.E., Kojom Foko, L.P., Ayina, A., Tornyigah, B., Epote, A.R., Penda, I.C., Epee Eboumbou, P., Ebong, S.B., Texier, G., and Nsango, S.E. (2023). Effectiveness of Intermittent Preventive Treatment with Sulfadoxine-Pyrimethamine in Pregnancy: Low Coverage and High Prevalence of Plasmodium Falciparum Dhfr-Dhps Quintuple Mutants as Major Challenges in Douala, an Urban Setting in Cameroon. Pathogens, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens12060844"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1093\/femsre\/fuaa001","article-title":"Antibiotic Resistance: Turning Evolutionary Principles into Clinical Reality","volume":"44","author":"Andersson","year":"2020","journal-title":"FEMS Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2024). Fourth Annual Global Forum of Malaria-Eliminating Countries: Meeting Report, Cape Town, South Africa, 24\u201326 January 2023, World Health Organization."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1186\/s13059-017-1204-4","article-title":"Longitudinal Genomic Surveillance of Plasmodium Falciparum Malaria Parasites Reveals Complex Genomic Architecture of Emerging Artemisinin Resistance","volume":"18","author":"Cerqueira","year":"2017","journal-title":"Genome Biol."},{"key":"ref_60","first-page":"120","article-title":"Socio-Economic Determinants and Malaria Risk: Assessing the Impact of Poverty, Housing Conditions, and Healthcare Accessibility in High-Incidence Regions","volume":"5","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sciences"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ushimaru, S., Iwata, R., Amrullah, E.R., Utami, A.W., and Ishida, A. (2024). Which Households Raise Livestock in Urban and Peri-Urban Areas of Eight Developing Asian Countries?. Agriculture, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/agriculture14030443"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Obasohan, P.E. (2022). Investigating Multiple Overlaps in the Determinants of Risk Factors of Anaemia, Malaria, and Malnutrition, and Their Multimorbidity, Among Children Aged 6 to 59 Months in Nigeria. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Sheffield].","DOI":"10.1101\/2023.04.10.23288389"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"358","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-025-05599-w","article-title":"Utilization of Insecticide-Treated Nets for Malaria Prevention among Children in Africa: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"24","author":"Basiru","year":"2025","journal-title":"Malar. J."},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"Kakuru, A. (2021). Impact of Malaria in Pregnancy and Intermittent Preventive Treatment of Malaria in Pregnancy on the Risk of Malaria in Infants. [Ph.D. Thesis, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine]."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"340","DOI":"10.1086\/709670","article-title":"The Impact of Health Programs on Political Opinion: Evidence from Malaria Control in Tanzania","volume":"83","author":"Croke","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Polit."},{"key":"ref_66","first-page":"78","article-title":"Clinical Manifestations and Health Impact of Malaria in Pregnant Women","volume":"5","year":"2024","journal-title":"Appl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100085","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gpeds.2023.100085","article-title":"Age-Specific Malaria Vulnerability and Transmission Reservoir among Children","volume":"6","author":"Ranjha","year":"2023","journal-title":"Glob. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-025-05275-z","article-title":"Enhancing the Uptake of Intermittent Preventive Treatment for Malaria in Pregnancy: A Scoping Review of Interventions and Gender-Informed Approaches","volume":"24","author":"Kretchy","year":"2025","journal-title":"Malar. J."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-022-04193-8","article-title":"A Comparison of Malaria Prevention Behaviours, Care-Seeking Practices and Barriers between Malaria at-Risk Worksite Migrant Workers and Villagers in Northern Shan State, Myanmar\u2014A Mixed Method Study","volume":"21","author":"Aung","year":"2022","journal-title":"Malar. J."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"288","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-023-04688-y","article-title":"Epidemiology of Malaria in Rohingya Refugee Camps in Bangladesh within 2017\u20132020","volume":"22","author":"Khan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Malar. J."},{"key":"ref_71","first-page":"101188","article-title":"Human Mobility, Garimpos and Spatiotemporal Malaria Transmission in the Yanomami Indigenous Territory: A Retrospective Observational Study","volume":"49","author":"Barbieri","year":"2025","journal-title":"Lancet Reg. Health"},{"key":"ref_72","unstructured":"Chaponda, M. (2025). Reducing the Burden of Malaria and Curable Sexually Transmitted and Reproductive Tract Infections During Pregnancy in an Area of High Co-Infection. [Ph.D. Thesis, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine]."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"997","DOI":"10.1186\/s12967-025-07017-w","article-title":"Human Genetic Variations Conferring Resistance to Malaria","volume":"23","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70382","DOI":"10.1111\/gcb.70382","article-title":"Fluctuating Warm and Humid Conditions Differentially Impact Immunity and Development in the Malaria Vector Anopheles Stephensi","volume":"31","author":"Valgaerts","year":"2025","journal-title":"Glob. Change Biol."},{"key":"ref_75","unstructured":"Gichana, A.L. (2023). Co-Infection of Plasmodium Species with Intestinal Parasites in Children with Fever Aged Ten Years and Below at Marani Sub County, Kisii County, Kenya. [Ph.D. Thesis, Kenyatta University]."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1097\/ID9.0000000000000177","article-title":"Geospatial Epidemiological Approaches to the Prevention and Control of Vector-Borne Diseases: A Systematic Review","volume":"6","author":"Liu","year":"2026","journal-title":"Infect. Dis. Immun."},{"key":"ref_77","unstructured":"Abdo, M. (2024). Assessment of Blood-Meal Sources and Plasmodium Natural Infection Status in Anopheles gambiae Complex, Anopheles pharoensis, and Anopheles stephensi Mosquitoes from Metehara and Awash Sebat Kilo, Central-East Ethiopia. [Ph.D. Thesis, Addis Ababa University]."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105510","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landusepol.2021.105510","article-title":"Amazon Rainforest Deforestation Influenced by Clandestine and Regular Roadway Network","volume":"108","author":"Blanco","year":"2021","journal-title":"Land Use Policy"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Freestone, D., and \u00c7i\u00e7ek, D. (2021). Legal Dimensions of Sea Level Rise: Pacific Perspectives, World Bank.","DOI":"10.1596\/35881"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1007\/s00436-024-08167-4","article-title":"A History of Malaria and Conflict","volume":"123","author":"Mertens","year":"2024","journal-title":"Parasitol. Res."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"278","DOI":"10.1080\/1057610X.2021.1954353","article-title":"How War in Yemen Transformed the Iran-Houthi Partnership","volume":"47","author":"Juneau","year":"2024","journal-title":"Stud. Confl. Terror."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Afriyie, F.A. (2025). Congo: Protracted Social Conflict and the M23 Rebellion. Analyzing the Ongoing Struggle Between the DRC Military and Rebels. Confl. Stud. Q., 3\u201331.","DOI":"10.24193\/csq.52.1"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kapil, N., Bhatnagar, A., Alamgir, M., Osmani, A.G., Haque, M., and Rahman, S.M. (2022). Refugee Response, Bangladesh. Commun. Community Engagem. Dis. Outbreaks Deal. Rights Cult. Complex. Context, 169\u2013211.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-92296-2_9"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gongal, G., Rahman, H., Thakuri, K.C., and Vijayalakshmy, K. (2022). An Overview of Transboundary Animal Diseases of Viral Origin in South Asia: What Needs to Be Done?. Vet. Sci., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/vetsci9110586"},{"key":"ref_85","unstructured":"Balfour, R., Bomassi, L., and Martinelli, M. (2022). The Southern Mirror: Reflections on Europe from the Global South, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Briggs, A. (2023). Climate Change, Conflict, and Contagion: Emerging Threats to Global Public Health. Healthcare Access-New Threats, New Approaches, IntechOpen.","DOI":"10.5772\/intechopen.108920"},{"key":"ref_87","unstructured":"Ayuya, O.I., Jong, A.O., Lutomia, C.K., Nchanji, E.B., Waswa, B.S., Ooro, P., Muriithi, C., and Njiru, E. (2026, February 19). Final Monitoring and Evaluation Report on Socio-Technical Innovation Bundles for Gender Equality and Climate Resilience in Kenya. Available online: https:\/\/gender.cgiar.org\/publications\/final-monitoring-and-evaluation-report-socio-technical-innovation-bundles-gender."},{"key":"ref_88","unstructured":"Ogbozor, I.B. (2025). Addressing Sub-Saharan Africa\u2019s Burden of Endemic Diseases: A Case for Mandatory Citizen Participation in Reaserach on Malaria and Type 2 Diabetes. [Ph.D. Thesis, Memorial University of Newfoundland]."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6618","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-023-42190-w","article-title":"Epidemiology of Plasmodium Malariae and Plasmodium Ovale Spp. in Kinshasa Province, Democratic Republic of Congo","volume":"14","author":"Sendor","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jointm.2023.09.002","article-title":"Diagnosis and Management of Malaria in the Intensive Care Unit","volume":"4","author":"Akafity","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Intensive Med."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.1007\/s11910-022-01214-6","article-title":"Neurological Complications of Malaria","volume":"22","author":"Trivedi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Curr. Neurol. Neurosci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"836","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2022.1480","article-title":"Association of Acute Respiratory Failure in Early Childhood with Long-Term Neurocognitive Outcomes","volume":"327","author":"Watson","year":"2022","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"fmad001","DOI":"10.1093\/tropej\/fmad001","article-title":"Cluster-Randomized Controlled Trial of Intermittent Preventive Treatment in Infancy Using Sulfadoxine\u2013Pyrimethamine (SP-IPTi): A Pilot Study in Nigeria","volume":"69","author":"Adeleke","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Trop. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cairns, M., Ceesay, S.J., Sagara, I., Zongo, I., Kessely, H., Gamougam, K., Diallo, A., Ogboi, J.S., Moroso, D., and Van Hulle, S. (2021). Effectiveness of Seasonal Malaria Chemoprevention (SMC) Treatments When SMC Is Implemented at Scale: Case\u2013Control Studies in 5 Countries. PLoS Med., 18.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1003727"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1325","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(21)00216-3","article-title":"Threats to the Effectiveness of Insecticide-Treated Bednets for Malaria Control: Thinking beyond Insecticide Resistance","volume":"9","author":"Lindsay","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref_96","unstructured":"Sumpter, J. (2024). Analysis of Malarial Impact: Understanding Disease Transmission, Epidemiology, and Effects on Fetal Life. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Lynn University]."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tomlinson, A., Semblat, J.-P., Gamain, B., and Ch\u00eane, A. (2021). VAR2CSA-Mediated Host Defense Evasion of Plasmodium Falciparum Infected Erythrocytes in Placental Malaria. Front. Immunol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.624126"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6730167","DOI":"10.1155\/bmri\/6730167","article-title":"The Prevalence of Malaria Among Pregnant Women at a Tertiary Care Hospital in Somalia: A Cross-Sectional Study","volume":"2025","author":"Mohamud","year":"2025","journal-title":"Biomed Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maia, M., and Kobylinski, K. (2024). Ivermectin for the Control and Elimination of Malaria. Practical Control of Mosquito Disease Vectors, CABI GB.","DOI":"10.1079\/9781789248845.0007"},{"key":"ref_100","unstructured":"Limbada, M. (2021). A Comparison of Different Community Models of Antiretroviral Therapy Delivery among Stable HIV+ Patients in an Urban Setting, Zambia. A Cluster-Randomized Non-Inferiority Trial. [Ph.D. Thesis, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine]."},{"key":"ref_101","unstructured":"Mikheieva, O., and Kuznetsova, I. (2023). Internally Displaced and Immobile People in Ukraine between 2014 and 2022: Older Age and Disabilities as Factors of Vulnerability, IOM."},{"key":"ref_102","first-page":"25","article-title":"Public Health in Settings of Conflict and Political Instability","volume":"25","author":"Spiegel","year":"2023","journal-title":"Manson\u2019s Trop. Dis. E-Book"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5571316","DOI":"10.1155\/tbed\/5571316","article-title":"Migratory Wave Due to Conflicts: Risk of Increased Infection from Zoonotic Diseases","volume":"2025","author":"Gharieb","year":"2025","journal-title":"Transbound. Emerg. Dis."},{"key":"ref_104","unstructured":"Ata, B., Lehman, A., and Montgomery, R. (2026, February 19). Last-Mile Delivery of Malaria Prevention Products in the DRC: An Inventory Management Model Under Supply Chain Disruptions. Available online: https:\/\/ssrn.com\/abstract=4669501."},{"key":"ref_105","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2024). Operational Manual on Indoor Residual Spraying: Control of Vectors of Malaria, Aedes-Borne Diseases, Chagas Disease, Leishmaniases and Lymphatic Filariasis, World Health Organization."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16655","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-95591-6","article-title":"A Meta-Analysis on the Prevalence and Characteristics of Severe Malaria in Patients with Plasmodium spp. and HIV Co-Infection","volume":"11","author":"Mahittikorn","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fan, Y., Yao, Q., Liu, Y., Jia, T., Zhang, J., and Jiang, E. (2022). Underlying Causes and Co-Existence of Malnutrition and Infections: An Exceedingly Common Death Risk in Cancer. Front. Nutr., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2022.814095"},{"key":"ref_108","first-page":"33","article-title":"Hematological Changes Following Blood Transfusion in Young Children with Severe Malaria and HIV: A Critical Review","volume":"2","author":"Obeagu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Elit. J. Lab. Med."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-022-04303-6","article-title":"The Economic Burden of Malaria: A Systematic Review","volume":"21","author":"Andrade","year":"2022","journal-title":"Malar. J."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eabn3256","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.abn3256","article-title":"The Fight against Malaria: Diminishing Gains and Growing Challenges","volume":"14","author":"Cohen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2971","DOI":"10.1111\/jan.14784","article-title":"A Systematic Review of the Educational Experiences and Needs of Children with Cancer Returning to School","volume":"77","author":"Sheaf","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Adv. Nurs."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1447","DOI":"10.1142\/S0217590823440034","article-title":"DO Remittances Mitigate Poverty? AN Empirical Evidence from 15 Selected Asian Economies","volume":"68","author":"Cui","year":"2023","journal-title":"Singap. Econ. Rev."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-025-05339-0","article-title":"Enhancing Malaria Elimination in High-Transmission Settings: The Synergy of Concurrent Vector Control and Chemotherapy","volume":"24","author":"Mulebeke","year":"2025","journal-title":"Malar. J."},{"key":"ref_114","unstructured":"Githinji, B.N. (2021). Preventing Malaria in Western Kenya through Educational Interventions and Treatment Combination of Indoor Residual Spraying with Insecticide Treated Mosquito Nets: An Integrated Review. [Ph.D. Thesis, Liberty University]. Available online: https:\/\/digitalcommons.liberty.edu\/doctoral\/3126\/."},{"key":"ref_115","unstructured":"Kenney, C.S. (2023). A Case Study in Fundraising, Logistics, and Collective Action for a Neglected Disease: Global Scaleup of Insecticide-Treated Nets in the 2000s, Urban Institute."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Taremwa, I.M., Ashaba, S., Kyarisiima, R., Ayebazibwe, C., Ninsiima, R., and Mattison, C. (2022). Treatment-Seeking and Uptake of Malaria Prevention Strategies among Pregnant Women and Caregivers of Children under-Five Years during COVID-19 Pandemic in Rural Communities in South West Uganda: A Qualitative Study. BMC Public Health, 22.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-022-12771-3"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"406","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-021-03936-3","article-title":"Evidence Supporting Deployment of next Generation Insecticide Treated Nets in Burkina Faso: Bioassays with Either Chlorfenapyr or Piperonyl Butoxide Increase Mortality of Pyrethroid-Resistant Anopheles Gambiae","volume":"20","author":"Hien","year":"2021","journal-title":"Malar. J."},{"key":"ref_118","unstructured":"Von Janine Hauer, M.A., Behrends, A., Runkel, S., and Welz, G. (2026, February 19). Transforming the Ricescape. A Case Study from Burkina Faso. Available online: https:\/\/edoc.hu-berlin.de\/items\/5175df55-c8bf-4dab-9511-0cd35ea45759."},{"key":"ref_119","unstructured":"Msugupakulya, B. (2024). Investigating Opportunities for Targeted Larval Source Management in Rural Communities Where Malaria Transmission Is Dominated by Anopheles funestus. [Ph.D. Thesis, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine]."},{"key":"ref_120","unstructured":"Magar, D.N. (2022). Knowledge and Use of Insecticide Treated Nets in Krachi East Municipality-Oti Region. [Ph.D. Thesis, Humboldt-Universit\u00e4t zu Berlin]. Available online: http:\/\/ir.uew.edu.gh:8080\/bitstream\/handle\/123456789\/3896\/Knowledge%20and%20use%20of%20insecticide%20treated%20nets%20in%20Krachi%20east%20municipality-Oti%20region.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mwalimu, C.D., Lazaro, S.N., Kisinza, W.N., Magesa, S.M., and Kiware, S.S. (2026, February 19). The Impact of Indoor Residual Spraying (IRS) Withdrawal in the Lake Zone Regions in Mainland Tanzania. Should Tanzania Withdrawal Its IRS Program? 2023. Available online: https:\/\/www.researchsquare.com\/article\/rs-2888818\/v1.","DOI":"10.21203\/rs.3.rs-2888818\/v1"},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70045","DOI":"10.1002\/arch.70045","article-title":"Insect Resistance to Insecticides: Causes, Mechanisms, and Exploring Potential Solutions","volume":"118","author":"Liang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Arch. Insect Biochem. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.32792\/utq\/utjsci\/v12i1.1381","article-title":"Insecticide Resistance in Agricultural Pests: Mechanisms, Case Studies, and Future Directions","volume":"12","author":"Khudhair","year":"2025","journal-title":"Univ. Thi-Qar J. Sci."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1867","DOI":"10.1007\/s00436-022-07512-9","article-title":"Malaria Diagnostic Methods with the Elimination Goal in View","volume":"121","author":"Oyegoke","year":"2022","journal-title":"Parasitol. Res."},{"key":"ref_125","first-page":"1","article-title":"Emerging techniques in malaria diagnosis","volume":"1","author":"Nyenke","year":"2024","journal-title":"Issues Health Sci."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMcp2117115","article-title":"Rapid Diagnostic Testing for SARS-CoV-2","volume":"386","author":"Drain","year":"2022","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1111\/tmi.13715","article-title":"Are National Treatment Guidelines for Falciparum Malaria in Line with WHO Recommendations and Is Antimalarial Resistance Taken into Consideration?\u2014A Review of Guidelines in Non-endemic Countries","volume":"27","author":"Visser","year":"2022","journal-title":"Trop. Med. Int. Health"},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1186\/s40794-022-00185-3","article-title":"Plasmodium vivax: The Potential Obstacles It Presents to Malaria Elimination and Eradication","volume":"8","author":"Habtamu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Trop. Dis. Travel Med. Vaccines"},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nadeem, A.Y., Shehzad, A., Islam, S.U., Al-Suhaimi, E.A., and Lee, Y.S. (2022). MosquirixTM RTS, S\/AS01 Vaccine Development, Immunogenicity, and Efficacy. Vaccines, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines10050713"},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1660","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(24)00004-7","article-title":"Feasibility, Safety, and Impact of the RTS, S\/AS01E Malaria Vaccine When Implemented through National Immunisation Programmes: Evaluation of Cluster-Randomised Introduction of the Vaccine in Ghana, Kenya, and Malawi","volume":"403","author":"Asante","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rich, K.M., and Wane, A. (2021). The Competitiveness of Beef Exports from Burkina Faso to Ghana. Front. Vet. Sci., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2021.619044"},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1186\/s12982-024-00284-w","article-title":"A Narrative Review of the RTS S AS01 Malaria Vaccine and Its Implementation in Africa to Reduce the Global Malaria Burden","volume":"21","author":"Ogieuhi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Discov. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_133","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2022). World Malaria Report 2022, World Health Organization."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"627","DOI":"10.4314\/ahs.v22i4.68","article-title":"A World Free of Malaria: It Is Time for Africa to Actively Champion and Take Leadership of Elimination and Eradication Strategies","volume":"22","author":"Egwu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Afr. Health Sci."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alenou, L.D., and Etang, J. (2021). Airport Malaria in Non-Endemic Areas: New Insights into Mosquito Vectors, Case Management and Major Challenges. Microorganisms, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms9102160"},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e353","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(25)00013-1","article-title":"Impact of the Global Fund Regional Artemisinin-Resistance Initiative on Malaria Control and Elimination in the Greater Mekong Subregion of Southeast Asia","volume":"25","author":"Pley","year":"2025","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Syahrani, L., Dwiranti, A., Asih, P.B.S., Rozi, I.E., Permana, D.H., Bowolaksono, A., and Syafruddin, D. (2025). Susceptibility of the Punctulatus Group (Diptera: Culicidae) to Insecticide Carbamate in Papua, Indonesia. Biodivers. J. Biol. Divers., 26.","DOI":"10.13057\/biodiv\/d260338"},{"key":"ref_138","unstructured":"Amoako, M. (2024). Towards a Functional Health System Governance: The Centrality of Policies, Institutions and Actors\u2019 Configuration in Malaria Eradication among Under-Five Children in Ghana. [Ph.D. Thesis, Univerzita Karlova]. Available online: https:\/\/dspace.cuni.cz\/handle\/20.500.11956\/190862."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lambiris, M., Ndongala, G., Ssempala, R., Balogun, V., Musiitwa, M., Kagwire, F., Olosunde, O., Emedo, E., Luketa, S., and Sangare, M. (2022). Real World Costs and Barriers to the Successful Implementation of Rectal Artesunate as Pre-Referral Treatment for Severe Malaria in Sub-Saharan Africa. medRxiv.","DOI":"10.1101\/2022.05.24.22275488"},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e33","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268825000111","article-title":"Impact of Temperatures on Malaria Incidence in Vulnerable Regions of Pakistan: Empirical Evidence and Future Projections","volume":"153","author":"Fatima","year":"2025","journal-title":"Epidemiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_141","unstructured":"Murphy, C., Heaphy, L., Quinn, T., O\u2019Brien, E., and Nolan, P. (2024). Ireland\u2019s Climate Change Assessment. Volume 3: Being Prepared for Ireland\u2019s Future Climate, Environmental Protection Agency Ireland (EPA). Available online: https:\/\/www.epa.ie\/publications\/monitoring--assessment\/climate-change\/ICCA_Volume-3.pdf."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Symons, T.L., Moran, A., Balzarolo, A., Vargas, C., Robertson, M., Lubinda, J., Saddler, A., McPhail, M., Harris, J., and Rozier, J. (2026). Projected Impacts of Climate Change on Malaria in Africa. Nature, 1\u20137.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-025-10015-z"},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1229","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(21)00503-1","article-title":"Urgent Lessons from COVID 19: Why the World Needs a Standing, Coordinated System and Sustainable Financing for Global Research and Development","volume":"397","author":"Lurie","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2025). Global Status Report on Neurology, World Health Organization.","DOI":"10.2471\/B09657"},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"810","DOI":"10.1002\/hpm.3936","article-title":"The Shock Effect: How US Global Health Policy Shifts Reshape Health Systems and Research","volume":"40","author":"Mansour","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Health Plann. Manag."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100059","DOI":"10.1016\/j.glmedi.2024.100059","article-title":"Bridging the Gap to Malaria Vaccination in Africa: Challenges and Opportunities","volume":"2","author":"Okesanya","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Med. Surg. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102526","DOI":"10.1016\/j.parint.2021.102526","article-title":"Plasmodium Vivax\u2013How Hidden Reservoirs Hinder Global Malaria Elimination","volume":"87","author":"Angrisano","year":"2022","journal-title":"Parasitol. Int."},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00442","DOI":"10.1016\/j.parepi.2025.e00442","article-title":"Asymptomatic\/Submicroscopic Plasmodium Vivax Infection: A Systematic Review and META-Analysis on the Hidden Challenge for Preventing Re-Establishment of Malaria Transmission","volume":"30","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Parasite Epidemiol. Control"},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"681","DOI":"10.1111\/ijd.16636","article-title":"Climate Change and the Displaced Person: How Vectors and Climate Are Changing the Landscape of Infectious Diseases among Displaced and Migrant Populations","volume":"62","author":"Choi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barrera, R. (2025). Surveillance and Control of Dengue Vectors in the United States and Territories, Open Book Publishers.","DOI":"10.11647\/OBP.0472"},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gomez, J., Grosso, A., Guzman-Guzman, M., Garcia Castillo, S., Castro, M.C., Torres, K., Vinetz, J.M., and Gamboa, D. (2025). Human Mobility and Malaria Risk in Peri-Urban and Rural Communities in the Peruvian Amazon. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 19.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0012058"},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100954","DOI":"10.1016\/j.onehlt.2024.100954","article-title":"A One Health Approach for Integrated Vector Management Monitoring and Evaluation","volume":"20","author":"Fite","year":"2025","journal-title":"One Health"},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105685","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ebiom.2025.105685","article-title":"Bifunctional Chemokine-Nanobody Fusion Protein Enhances Neutrophil Recruitment to Impede Acanthamoeba Immune Evasion","volume":"115","author":"Wei","year":"2025","journal-title":"eBioMedicine"},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"756","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-024-01065-7","article-title":"Malaria Vaccines: A New Era of Prevention and Control","volume":"22","author":"Duffy","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2300658","DOI":"10.1002\/biot.202300658","article-title":"Innovative Translational Platforms for Rapid Developing Clinical Vaccines against COVID-19 and Other Infectious Disease","volume":"19","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Biotechnol. J."},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mensah, B.A., Akyea-Bobi, N.E., and Ghansah, A. (2022). Genomic Approaches for Monitoring Transmission Dynamics of Malaria: A Case for Malaria Molecular Surveillance in Sub\u2013Saharan Africa. Front. Epidemiol., 2.","DOI":"10.3389\/fepid.2022.939291"},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ochola, R. (2025). The Case for Genomic Surveillance in Africa. Trop. Med. Infect. Dis., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/tropicalmed10050129"},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e082598","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2023-082598","article-title":"System-Wide Governance Challenges of the Ebonyi State Malaria Elimination Programme and Recommendations for Malaria Health System Strengthening: A Qualitative Study among Stakeholders in Ebonyi State, Nigeria","volume":"14","author":"Omale","year":"2024","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Okumu, F., Gyapong, M., Casamitjana, N., Castro, M.C., Itoe, M.A., Okonofua, F., and Tanner, M. (2022). What Africa Can Do to Accelerate and Sustain Progress against Malaria. PLoS Glob. Public Health, 2.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pgph.0000262"},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s12992-021-00793-2","article-title":"Charting the Evidence for Climate Change Impacts on the Global Spread of Malaria and Dengue and Adaptive Responses: A Scoping Review of Reviews","volume":"18","author":"Kulkarni","year":"2022","journal-title":"Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-023-04621-3","article-title":"El Ni\u00f1o and Other Climatic Drivers of Epidemic Malaria in Ethiopia: New Tools for National Health Adaptation Plans","volume":"22","author":"Woyessa","year":"2023","journal-title":"Malar. J."},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e081982","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2023-081982","article-title":"Community Engagement Approaches for Malaria Prevention, Control and Elimination: A Scoping Review","volume":"14","author":"Awasthi","year":"2024","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-021-03998-3","article-title":"Supporting Countries to Achieve Their Malaria Elimination Goals: The WHO E-2020 Initiative","volume":"20","author":"Lindblade","year":"2021","journal-title":"Malar. J."},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kollie, K.K. (2024). Factors Hindering or Promoting the Integration of Neglected Tropical Diseases Requiring Case Management into the Liberian Health System. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Liverpool].","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjgh-2023-012599"},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-023-04774-1","article-title":"Malaria Control\u2013Lessons Learned from Trends of Malaria Indices over Three Decades in Karnataka, India","volume":"22","author":"Chalageri","year":"2023","journal-title":"Malar. J."},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-025-05701-2","article-title":"MMS Am\u00e9ricas: A Regional Network for Malaria Molecular Surveillance","volume":"25","author":"Network","year":"2026","journal-title":"Malar. J."}],"container-title":["Biology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-7737\/15\/7\/575\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,6]],"date-time":"2026-04-06T04:34:09Z","timestamp":1775450049000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-7737\/15\/7\/575"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,3]]},"references-count":166,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4]]}},"alternative-id":["biology15070575"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/biology15070575","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-7737"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-7737","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,3]]}}}