{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,22]],"date-time":"2026-05-22T11:08:25Z","timestamp":1779448105631,"version":"3.53.1"},"reference-count":54,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,9]],"date-time":"2026-05-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1778284800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biology"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Prenatal maternal stress alters maternal\u2013fetal heart rate coupling, as demonstrated by the Fetal Stress Index derived from bivariate phase-rectified signal averaging. Here, we extend this framework using information-theoretical measures to elucidate underlying mechanisms. In 118 third-trimester pregnancies (59 stressed, 59 control), we computed entropy rate (ER), sample entropy (SE) and transfer entropy (TE) under multiple conditioning paradigms, employing mixed linear models for repeated measures. We identified dual coupling mechanisms at the short-term (0.5\u20132.5 s), but not long-term (2.5\u20135 s) time scales: (1) stress-invariant state-dependent synchronization, with maternal decelerations exerting approximately 60% coupling strength on fetal heart rate complexity\u2014a fundamental coordination conserved across demographics; and (2) stress-sensitive temporal information transfer (TE), showing exploratory associations with maternal cortisol that require replication. A robust sex-by-stress interaction emerged in TE from mixed models, with exploratory female-specific coupling patterns absent in males. Universal acceleration predominance was observed in both maternal and fetal heart rates, stronger in fetuses and independent of sex or stress. We provide insight into the dependence of these findings on the sampling rate of the underlying data, identifying 4 Hz, commonly used for ultrasound-derived fetal heart rate recordings, as a sufficient sampling rate to capture the information flow. Information-theoretical analysis reveals that maternal\u2013fetal coupling operates through complementary pathways with differential stress sensitivity, extending the Fetal Stress Index by elucidating causal foundations. Future studies should explore additional information-theoretical conditional approaches to resolve stress-specific and time-scale-specific differences in information flow.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/biology15100749","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,22]],"date-time":"2026-05-22T10:07:47Z","timestamp":1779444467000},"page":"749","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Measuring the Time-Scale-Dependent Information Flow Between Maternal and Fetal Heartbeats During the Third Trimester: Impact of Fetal Sex and Maternal Chronic Stress"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1094-7201","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nicolas B.","family":"Garnier","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"CNRS, ENS de Lyon, LPENSL, UMR5672, 69342 Lyon, Cedex 07, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-4323-4047","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria S.","family":"Molinet","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, TUM Hospital, School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, 81675 Munich, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7785-8748","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marta C.","family":"Antonelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, TUM Hospital, School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, 81675 Munich, Germany"},{"name":"Instituto de Biolog\u00eda Celular y Neurociencia \u201cProf. E. De Robertis\u201d, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires 1121, Argentina"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5696-6686","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Silvia M.","family":"Lobmaier","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, TUM Hospital, School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, 81675 Munich, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3159-6321","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Martin G.","family":"Frasch","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, School of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA"},{"name":"Institute on Human Development and Disability, School of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1007\/s00404-019-05390-8","article-title":"Fetal Heart Rate Variability Responsiveness to Maternal Stress, Non-invasively Detected from Maternal Transabdominal ECG","volume":"301","author":"Lobmaier","year":"2020","journal-title":"Arch. 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