{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,22]],"date-time":"2026-05-22T14:08:39Z","timestamp":1779458919876,"version":"3.53.1"},"reference-count":72,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,11]],"date-time":"2026-05-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1778457600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"New York Thoroughbred Horsemen\u2019s Association"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biology"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Mechanical trauma during pregnancy from motor vehicle accidents, falls, and maternal seizures poses significant risks to fetal development. The fetus is protected by multiple hierarchical layers including the uterine wall, amniotic fluid, and cerebrospinal fluid surrounding the brain. Despite the clinical significance of maternal trauma occurring in approximately six to eight percent of pregnancies, previous computational studies have focused primarily on amniotic fluid protection while treating the fetus as a homogeneous structure, without examining the nested protective architecture comprising both amniotic fluid and cerebrospinal fluid as an integrated system. Methods: This investigation implements a nested fluid\u2013structure interaction framework simultaneously capturing three hierarchically organized systems: the uterine wall interacting with amniotic fluid, amniotic fluid interacting with the fetal body, and the cranial system comprising skull, cerebrospinal fluid, and brain tissue. The computational architecture employs smoothed particle hydrodynamics for fluid domains coupled with finite element methods for solid structures. Boundary conditions representing traumatic forces were obtained through experimental protocols using an instrumented medical simulation mannequin performing seizure movements. Results: Computational simulations predicted that amniotic fluid absorbed the majority of impact forces through hydraulic cushioning, while cerebrospinal fluid provided additional stress reduction through pressure redistribution, with model predictions suggesting total stress reduction exceeding ninety percent. Peak fetal brain stress values predicted by the model were below injury thresholds reported in adult neural tissue literature, though direct applicability of these thresholds to fetal tissue remains uncertain. The fetal brain exhibited minimal movement relative to the skull despite complex force cascades. Stress distributions showed elevated values in the frontal lobe and brainstem, though magnitudes remained within ranges that the model suggests may be tolerable. Conclusions: Computational modeling suggests that the nested fluid protection architecture operates as an integrated hierarchical system providing potential mechanical protection through sequential energy dissipation. These findings represent model predictions requiring experimental and clinical validation before translation to clinical practice.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/biology15100761","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,22]],"date-time":"2026-05-22T13:12:08Z","timestamp":1779455528000},"page":"761","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Nested Fluid\u2013Structure Interaction Predictive Modeling of Fetal Brain Stress During Maternal Trauma"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-3801-0522","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jonathan","family":"Mayer","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Algorithmic Medicine Laboratory, Department of Osteopathic Manipulative Medicine, College of Osteopathic Medicine, New York Institute of Technology, Old Westbury, New York, NY 11568, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-6276-3676","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Molly","family":"Bekbolatova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Algorithmic Medicine Laboratory, Department of Osteopathic Manipulative Medicine, College of Osteopathic Medicine, New York Institute of Technology, Old Westbury, New York, NY 11568, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-4815-9010","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Timothy","family":"Devine","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Ferrara Center for Patient Safety and Clinical Simulation, College of Osteopathic Medicine, New York Institute of Technology, Old Westbury, New York, NY 11568, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-4674-7408","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paula","family":"Ryo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Ferrara Center for Patient Safety and Clinical Simulation, College of Osteopathic Medicine, New York Institute of Technology, Old Westbury, New York, NY 11568, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2154-3728","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Milan","family":"Toma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Algorithmic Medicine Laboratory, Department of Osteopathic Manipulative Medicine, College of Osteopathic Medicine, New York Institute of Technology, Old Westbury, New York, NY 11568, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"364","DOI":"10.1115\/1.1287160","article-title":"Infant Skull and Suture Properties: Measurements and Implications for Mechanisms of Pediatric Brain Injury","volume":"122","author":"Margulies","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. 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