{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,9]],"date-time":"2026-11-09T20:09:20Z","timestamp":1794254960922,"version":"4.9.0"},"reference-count":74,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,16]],"date-time":"2026-05-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1778889600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biology"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) are multipotent cells characterized by their regenerative capacity and strong immunomodulatory properties. In recent years, MSC-based therapy has attracted significant attention as a potential treatment for a wide range of immune-mediated and degenerative diseases. The therapeutic effects of MSCs are primarily mediated through paracrine signaling and secretion of cytokines that regulate immune responses and promote tissue repair. This review focuses on five key cytokines involved in MSC immunomodulation: interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-10 (IL-10), transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-\u03b2), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-\u03b1), and interleukin-1 beta (IL-1\u03b2). These cytokines interact within a complex signaling network that allows MSCs to suppress excessive inflammation and restore immune balance. The role of MSC therapy is examined in several clinically relevant conditions, including systemic lupus erythematosus, systemic sclerosis, ischemic stroke, spinal cord injury, diabetes mellitus, and female infertility. Across these diseases, MSCs demonstrate the ability to inhibit pro-inflammatory immune cell activity, promote regulatory immune phenotypes, reduce oxidative stress, and stimulate regeneration through the secretion of growth factors and extracellular vesicles. Despite promising experimental and early clinical findings, several limitations remain, including variability in MSC sources, limited cell survival after transplantation, and the need for optimized dosing strategies. Overall, MSC therapy represents a multifunctional therapeutic approach combining immunomodulation, anti-inflammatory activity, and regenerative support. Further research is required to better understand cytokine interactions, improve standardization of MSC-based treatments, and enhance clinical efficacy across diverse pathological conditions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/biology15100794","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,25]],"date-time":"2026-05-25T02:32:28Z","timestamp":1779676348000},"page":"794","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Immunomodulatory Mechanisms of Mesenchymal Stromal Cells: Cytokine Networks and Therapeutic Potential Across Immune-Mediated, Inflammatory, and Regenerative Disorders"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Tamerlan","family":"Nurlybek","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Genetics and Molecular Biology NJSC, Astana Medical University, Astana 010000, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nursulu","family":"Altaeva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Genetics and Molecular Biology NJSC, Astana Medical University, Astana 010000, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-0357-5989","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Baglan","family":"Kazhiyakhmetova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Genetics and Molecular Biology NJSC, Astana Medical University, Astana 010000, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhansaya","family":"Seitkumarova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Genetics and Molecular Biology NJSC, Astana Medical University, Astana 010000, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yerkezhan","family":"Baidildina","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Genetics and Molecular Biology NJSC, Astana Medical University, Astana 010000, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-7917-0307","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anastassiya","family":"Vizigina","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Genetics and Molecular Biology NJSC, Astana Medical University, Astana 010000, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6095-459X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yerlan","family":"Kashkinbayev","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Scientific Research Institute of Radiobiology and Radiation Protection NJSC, Astana Medical University, Astana 010000, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"641","DOI":"10.1002\/jor.1100090504","article-title":"Mesenchymal stem cells","volume":"9","author":"Caplan","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Orthop. Res."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1019","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcyt.2019.08.002","article-title":"Mesenchymal stem versus stromal cells: International Society for Cell & Gene Therapy (ISCT\u00ae) Mesenchymal Stromal Cell committee position statement on nomenclature","volume":"21","author":"Viswanathan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cytotherapy"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tmrv.2015.11.004","article-title":"Unraveling the mesenchymal stromal cells\u2019 paracrine immunomodulatory effects","volume":"30","author":"Fontaine","year":"2016","journal-title":"Transfus. Med. Rev."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2825","DOI":"10.1089\/scd.2013.0193","article-title":"Mesenchymal stem cells induce an inflammatory response after intravenous infusion","volume":"22","author":"Hoogduijn","year":"2013","journal-title":"Stem Cells Dev."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3087","DOI":"10.1002\/stem.2104","article-title":"Mesenchymal stromal cells prevent allostimulation in vivo and control checkpoints of Th1 priming","volume":"33","author":"Consentius","year":"2015","journal-title":"Stem Cells"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2236","DOI":"10.1007\/s12015-024-10780-w","article-title":"Study on Preclinical Safety and Toxic Mechanism of Human Umbilical Cord Mesenchymal Stem Cells in F344RG Rats","volume":"20","author":"Hao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Stem Cell Rev. Rep."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2690","DOI":"10.1002\/stem.1511","article-title":"Crosstalk between mesenchymal stem cells and endothelial cells leads to downregulation of cytokine-induced leukocyte recruitment","volume":"31","author":"Luu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Stem Cells"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"552","DOI":"10.4252\/wjsc.v6.i5.552","article-title":"Secretion of immunoregulatory cytokines by mesenchymal stem cells","volume":"6","author":"Kyurkchiev","year":"2014","journal-title":"World J. Stem Cells."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bouffi, C., Bony, C., Courties, G., Jorgensen, C., and Noel, D. (2010). IL-6-dependent PGE2 secretion by mesenchymal stem cells inhibits local inflammation in experimental arthritis. PLoS ONE, 5.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0014247"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21853","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-78864-4","article-title":"Intracellular role of IL-6 in mesenchymal stromal cell immunosuppression and proliferation","volume":"10","author":"Dorronsoro","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5771","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.180.9.5771","article-title":"IL-10: The master regulator of immunity to infection","volume":"180","author":"Couper","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4120","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2004-02-0586","article-title":"Human mesenchymal stem cells inhibit differentiation and function of monocyte-derived dendritic cells","volume":"105","author":"Jiang","year":"2005","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shephard, M.T., Merkhan, M.M., and Forsyth, N.R. (2022). Human mesenchymal stem cell secretome driven T cell immunomodulation is IL-10 dependent. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms232113596"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.3727\/000000006780666957","article-title":"Identification of IL-10 and TGF-beta transcripts involved in the inhibition of T-lymphocyte proliferation during cell contact with human mesenchymal stem cells","volume":"13","author":"Nasef","year":"2007","journal-title":"Gene Expr."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"516","DOI":"10.1111\/cei.12423","article-title":"Mesenchymal stem cells suppress CD8+ T cell-mediated activation by suppressing natural killer group 2, member D protein receptor expression and secretion of prostaglandin E2, indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase and transforming growth factor-beta","volume":"178","author":"Li","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"723","DOI":"10.1038\/nri.2016.112","article-title":"Immunoregulation by members of the TGF\u03b2 superfamily","volume":"16","author":"Chen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intimp.2017.01.019","article-title":"TGF-\u03b2 engineered mesenchymal stem cells (TGF-\u03b2\/MSCs) for treatment of Type 1 diabetes (T1D) mice model","volume":"44","author":"Daneshmandi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. Immunopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5652","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0910720107","article-title":"Bone marrow stromal cells use TGF-beta to suppress allergic responses in a mouse model of ragweed-induced asthma","volume":"107","author":"Nemeth","year":"2010","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2249.2009.03874.x","article-title":"Cell contact, prostaglandin E(2) and transforming growth factor beta 1 play non-redundant roles in human mesenchymal stem cell induction of CD4+CD25(High) forkhead box P3+ regulatory T cells","volume":"156","author":"English","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"480","DOI":"10.1002\/eji.201343668","article-title":"Human mesenchymal stromal cells modulate T-cell responses through TNF-\u03b1-mediated activation of NF-\u03baB","volume":"44","author":"Dorronsoro","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eur. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2321","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.0902023","article-title":"Inflammatory cytokine-induced intercellular adhesion molecule-1 and vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 in mesenchymal stem cells are critical for immunosuppression","volume":"184","author":"Ren","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1002\/eji.201948336","article-title":"TNF-\u03b1 and IL-1\u03b2 sensitize human MSC for IFN-\u03b3 signaling and enhance neutrophil recruitment","volume":"51","author":"Hackel","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"352","DOI":"10.1002\/eji.201344372","article-title":"Unveiling the role of TNF-\u03b1 in mesenchymal stromal cell-mediated immunosuppression","volume":"44","author":"Ren","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eur. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1779","DOI":"10.3889\/oamjms.2018.404","article-title":"The role of TNF-\u03b1 induced MSCs on suppressive inflammation by increasing TGF-\u03b2 and IL-10","volume":"6","author":"Putra","year":"2018","journal-title":"Open Access Maced. J. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pyrillou, K., Burzynski, L.C., and Clarke, M.C.H. (2020). Alternative pathways of IL-1 activation, and its role in health and disease. Front. Immunol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.613170"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1186\/s13287-017-0531-4","article-title":"Interleukin-1 primes human mesenchymal stem cells towards an anti-inflammatory and pro-trophic phenotype in vitro","volume":"8","author":"Cunningham","year":"2017","journal-title":"Stem Cell Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1002\/biof.1587","article-title":"The role of interleukin 1 receptor antagonist in mesenchymal stem cell-based tissue repair and regeneration","volume":"46","author":"Harrell","year":"2020","journal-title":"BioFactors"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"483","DOI":"10.1002\/stem.2254","article-title":"Mesenchymal stem cell-derived interleukin 1 receptor antagonist promotes macrophage polarization and inhibits B cell differentiation","volume":"34","author":"Dayer","year":"2016","journal-title":"Stem Cells"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1016\/0002-9343(76)90431-9","article-title":"The bimodal mortality pattern of systemic lupus erythematosus","volume":"60","author":"Urowitz","year":"1976","journal-title":"Am. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"727","DOI":"10.1177\/0961203315627202","article-title":"Overall and cause-specific mortality in systemic lupus erythematosus: An updated meta-analysis","volume":"25","author":"Lee","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lupus"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1186\/s13287-020-01837-x","article-title":"Mesenchymal stem cells inhibited the differentiation of MDSCs via COX2\/PGE2 in experimental sialadenitis","volume":"11","author":"Qi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Stem Cell Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1031","DOI":"10.3727\/096368917X694660","article-title":"Human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells inhibit T follicular helper cell expansion through the activation of iNOS in lupus-prone B6.MRL-Faslpr mice","volume":"26","author":"Zhang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cell Transplant."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5306","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1400036","article-title":"Impaired B cell inhibition by lupus bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells is caused by reduced CCL2 expression","volume":"193","author":"Che","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2367","DOI":"10.3727\/096368914X685645","article-title":"Adipose tissue-derived mesenchymal stem cells induce expansion of interleukin-10-producing regulatory B cells and ameliorate autoimmunity in a murine model of systemic lupus erythematosus","volume":"24","author":"Park","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cell Transplant."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"766","DOI":"10.1002\/stem.2509","article-title":"Mesenchymal stromal cell secretion of programmed death-1 ligands regulates T cell mediated immunosuppression","volume":"35","author":"Davies","year":"2017","journal-title":"Stem Cells"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1177\/0961203317711013","article-title":"Bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells inhibit T follicular helper cell in lupus-prone mice","volume":"27","author":"Yang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lupus"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.1038\/cmi.2015.89","article-title":"The regulation of the Treg\/Th17 balance by mesenchymal stem cells in human systemic lupus erythematosus","volume":"14","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1152\/advan.00058.2013","article-title":"Pattern recognition receptors in innate immunity, host defense, and immunopathology","volume":"37","author":"Suresh","year":"2013","journal-title":"Adv. Physiol. Educ."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s11882-011-0234-3","article-title":"Toll-like receptors in SLE: Potential targets for therapeutic intervention","volume":"12","author":"Horton","year":"2012","journal-title":"Curr. Allergy Asthma Rep."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"194","DOI":"10.1093\/stcltm\/szad010","article-title":"Regulatory B cells contribute to the clinical response after bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stromal cell infusion in patients with systemic sclerosis","volume":"12","author":"Loisel","year":"2023","journal-title":"Stem Cells Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"372","DOI":"10.1186\/s13287-023-03543-w","article-title":"Mesenchymal stem cell-based therapy for autoimmune-related fibrotic skin diseases\u2014Systemic sclerosis and sclerodermatous graft-versus-host disease","volume":"14","author":"Yang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Stem Cell Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7162","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-72630-6","article-title":"Exosomes carrying adipose mesenchymal stem cells function alleviate scleroderma skin fibrosis by inhibiting the TGF-\u03b21\/Smad3 axis","volume":"15","author":"Xiao","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"466","DOI":"10.1038\/s41420-022-01264-2","article-title":"Mesenchymal stem cells alleviate systemic sclerosis by inhibiting the recruitment of pathogenic macrophages","volume":"8","author":"Gong","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cell Death Discov."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102755","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2021.102755","article-title":"Mesenchymal stromal cells for systemic sclerosis treatment","volume":"20","author":"Farge","year":"2021","journal-title":"Autoimmun. Rev."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, L., Wang, J., Huang, J., Song, X., Wu, Y., Chen, X., Tan, Y., and Yang, Q. (2022). The role of mesenchymal stem cell transplantation for ischemic stroke and recent research developments. Front. Neurol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2022.1000777"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1815","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2004-04-1559","article-title":"Human mesenchymal stem cells modulate allogeneic immune cell responses","volume":"105","author":"Aggarwal","year":"2005","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, A., Guo, F., Pan, Q., Chen, S., Chen, J., Liu, H.F., and Pan, Q. (2021). Mesenchymal stem cell therapy: Hope for patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Front. Immunol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.728190"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"424","DOI":"10.1602\/neurorx.1.4.424","article-title":"Cellular transplantation strategies for spinal cord injury and translational neurobiology","volume":"1","author":"Reier","year":"2004","journal-title":"NeuroRx"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.1007\/s11064-019-02844-y","article-title":"The struggle to make CNS axons regenerate: Why has it been so difficult?","volume":"45","author":"Fawcett","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neurochem. Res."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1038\/icb.2012.56","article-title":"Mechanisms of mesenchymal stromal cell immunomodulation","volume":"91","author":"English","year":"2013","journal-title":"Immunol. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nakazaki, M. (2025). From stem cells to vesicles: A comprehensive review of MSC and MSC-EV therapeutics for spinal cord injury. Neurogenesis and Brain Development\u2014Advances and Challenges, IntechOpen.","DOI":"10.5772\/intechopen.1011413"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.2174\/1570159X13666150403231920","article-title":"Nerve growth factor: A focus on neuroscience and therapy","volume":"13","author":"Aloe","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr. Neuropharmacol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1097\/YPG.0000000000000237","article-title":"Brain-derived neurotrophic factor and schizophrenia","volume":"29","author":"Punzi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Psychiatr. Genet."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3412","DOI":"10.1002\/art.22924","article-title":"Rate and determinants of progression of atherosclerosis in systemic lupus erythematosus","volume":"56","author":"Roman","year":"2007","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2015.10.002","article-title":"Subclinical atherosclerosis in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: A systemic review and meta-analysis","volume":"15","author":"Wu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Autoimmun. Rev."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tsai, C.Y., Shen, C.Y., Liao, H.T., Li, K.J., Lee, H.T., Lu, C.S., Wu, C.H., Kuo, Y.M., Hsieh, S.C., and Yu, C.L. (2019). Molecular and cellular bases of immunosenescence, inflammation, and cardiovascular complications mimicking \u2018inflammaging\u2019 in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms20163878"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1016\/0092-8674(94)90337-9","article-title":"Traffic signals for lymphocyte recirculation and leukocyte emigration: The multistep paradigm","volume":"76","author":"Springer","year":"1994","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2069","DOI":"10.1002\/art.21130","article-title":"Increased levels of serum protein oxidation and correlation with disease activity in systemic lupus erythematosus","volume":"52","author":"Morgan","year":"2005","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"American Diabetes Association (2018). Classification and diagnosis of diabetes: Standards of medical care in diabetes\u20142018. Diabetes Care, 41, S13\u2013S27.","DOI":"10.2337\/dc18-S002"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1080\/08916930701619169","article-title":"Autoantibodies in type 1 diabetes","volume":"41","author":"Taplin","year":"2008","journal-title":"Autoimmunity"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"644","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2016.02.017","article-title":"Type 1 diabetes associated autoimmunity","volume":"15","author":"Kahaly","year":"2016","journal-title":"Autoimmun. Rev."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arcmed.2005.01.003","article-title":"Pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes mellitus","volume":"36","author":"Leahy","year":"2005","journal-title":"Arch. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"657","DOI":"10.1038\/nrg2178","article-title":"Genome-wide association studies provide new insights into type 2 diabetes aetiology","volume":"8","author":"Frayling","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Genet."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.2147\/IJWH.S13333","article-title":"Gestational diabetes: Risks, management, and treatment options","volume":"2","author":"Kim","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Women\u2019s Health"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1163","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cca.2012.03.021","article-title":"Interleukin-1 (IL-1) family of cytokines: Role in type 2 diabetes","volume":"413","author":"Banerjee","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clin. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.2337\/dc08-1161","article-title":"Elevated levels of the anti-inflammatory interleukin-1 receptor antagonist precede the onset of type 2 diabetes: The Whitehall II study","volume":"32","author":"Herder","year":"2009","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"238","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diabres.2005.10.018","article-title":"A case of slowly progressive type 1 diabetes with unstable glycemic control caused by unusual insulin antibody and successfully treated with steroid therapy","volume":"72","author":"Matsuyoshi","year":"2006","journal-title":"Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1038\/nrm2327","article-title":"Mechanisms of disease: Molecular and metabolic mechanisms of insulin resistance and beta-cell failure in type 2 diabetes","volume":"9","author":"Muoio","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1038\/nri2925","article-title":"Type 2 diabetes as an inflammatory disease","volume":"11","author":"Donath","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1712","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2016-3931","article-title":"Interleukin-1 antagonism decreases cortisol levels in obese individuals","volume":"102","author":"Urwyler","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1016\/j.it.2003.10.013","article-title":"Inflammation: The link between insulin resistance, obesity and diabetes","volume":"25","author":"Dandona","year":"2004","journal-title":"Trends Immunol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, Z., Zhang, M., Tian, Y., Li, Q., and Huang, X. (2021). Mesenchymal Stem Cells in Premature Ovarian Insufficiency: Mechanisms and Prospects. Front. Cell Dev. Biol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcell.2021.718192"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9071720","DOI":"10.1155\/2019\/9071720","article-title":"Using mesenchymal stem cells to treat female infertility: An update on female reproductive diseases","volume":"2019","author":"Zhao","year":"2019","journal-title":"Stem Cells Int."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1186\/s13048-024-01513-1","article-title":"Mesenchymal stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles therapy for primary ovarian insufficiency: A systematic review and meta-analysis of pre-clinical studies","volume":"17","author":"Firouzabadi","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Ovarian Res."}],"container-title":["Biology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-7737\/15\/10\/794\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,25]],"date-time":"2026-05-25T03:20:06Z","timestamp":1779679206000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-7737\/15\/10\/794"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,16]]},"references-count":74,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5]]}},"alternative-id":["biology15100794"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/biology15100794","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-7737"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-7737","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,16]]}}}