{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,1]],"date-time":"2026-07-01T19:47:29Z","timestamp":1782935249930,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"13","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,24]],"date-time":"2026-06-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1782259200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"The Program for the Development of Science and Technology of Jilin Province","award":["20220101356JC"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20220101356JC"]}]},{"name":"Natural Science Foundation Project of Jilin Province","award":["20240601037RC"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20240601037RC"]}]},{"name":"Natural Science Foundation Project of Jilin Province","award":["YDZJ202102CXJD049"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["YDZJ202102CXJD049"]}]},{"name":"Natural Science Foundation Project of Jilin Province","award":["20220201125GX"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20220201125GX"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biology"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Antibiotic-resistant bacteria are widely distributed and threaten public health. Photocatalytic antimicrobial technology can effectively inactivate multidrug-resistant bacteria without readily inducing resistance. We previously showed that oxygen-rich vacancy Bi2MoO6 (OBM) exhibits excellent activity against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), but the underlying molecular mechanisms remain poorly understood. Here, we employed integrated transcriptomics and metabolomics, with qRT-PCR validation, to systematically elucidate the antibacterial mechanism of OBM against MRSA. OBM treatment induced profound transcriptional and metabolic alterations: 231 differentially expressed genes and 206 differentially abundant metabolites were identified. Functional enrichment analysis revealed cooperative involvement in multiple critical pathways, including inhibition of amino acid biosynthesis and protein translation, disruption of cell wall and membrane integrity, induction of oxidative stress, collapse of energy metabolism (suppression of oxidative phosphorylation and impaired ATP synthesis), and imbalance in nucleotide metabolism (down-regulation of DNA helicase and mismatch repair genes, dysregulation of purine\/pyrimidine metabolism). These findings demonstrate that OBM photocatalytically inactivates MRSA through a multi-target systemic attack at both the transcriptional and metabolic levels, providing a novel theoretical foundation for the development of photocatalytic materials aimed at controlling MRSA and other drug-resistant bacteria.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/biology15130993","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,1]],"date-time":"2026-07-01T16:50:33Z","timestamp":1782924633000},"page":"993","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Transcriptomic and Metabolomic Analysis Reveals Molecular Mechanism of Oxygen-Rich Vacancy Bi2MoO6 Photocatalytic Inactivation of MRSA"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Runze","family":"Zhang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Life Sciences, Jilin Normal University, Siping 136000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhendong","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Life Sciences, Jilin Normal University, Siping 136000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lin","family":"Han","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Life Sciences, Jilin Normal University, Siping 136000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shuai","family":"Qiu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Life Sciences, Jilin Normal University, Siping 136000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Daxun","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Life Sciences, Jilin Normal University, Siping 136000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hui","family":"Bai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Life Sciences, Jilin Normal University, Siping 136000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xin","family":"Meng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Life Sciences, Jilin Normal University, Siping 136000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hua","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Life Sciences, Jilin Normal University, Siping 136000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yunfeng","family":"Qi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Life Sciences, Jilin Normal University, Siping 136000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129085","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seppur.2024.129085","article-title":"Effective killing of multidrug resistant bacteria by Bi2MoO6 nanospheres rich in oxygen vacancy under visible light","volume":"354","author":"Xu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sep. Purif. Technol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157828","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2024.157828","article-title":"Oxygen-deficient Bi2MoO6@ sRuO2@ HA heterojunction for photocatalytic treatment of drug-resistant bacterial infections","volume":"502","author":"Yang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131746","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seppur.2025.131746","article-title":"Synergistic effects of monolayer Bi2MoO6 layered heterojunctions configuration and surface \u201cBi\u2013O\u201d vacancy defects of in enhanced photocatalytic antimicrobial performance","volume":"363","author":"Yang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sep. Purif. Technol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137367","DOI":"10.1016\/j.colsurfa.2025.137367","article-title":"Vacancy engineering tailoring bismuth molybdate with improved haloperoxidase-like activity for antibacterial applications","volume":"724","author":"Zhu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Colloids Surf. A Physicochem. Eng. Asp."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129321","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seppur.2024.129321","article-title":"Synergistic enhancement of singlet oxygen generation in Au and oxygen vacancy co-modified Bi2MoO6 ultrathin nanosheets for efficient ciprofloxacin degradation","volume":"354","author":"Li","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sep. Purif. Technol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15568","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.3c02304","article-title":"A 0D-2D heterojunction bismuth molybdate-anchored multifunctional hydrogel for highly efficient eradication of drug-resistant bacteria","volume":"17","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12058","DOI":"10.1002\/smll.202512058","article-title":"Oxygen Vacancy Modulating the\u00b7 OH Yield of Bi4O5Br2 for Improving the Photocatalytic Inactivation of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus","volume":"22","author":"Gong","year":"2026","journal-title":"Small"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107157","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jwpe.2025.107157","article-title":"Bi2MoO6\/g-C3N4 S-type heterojunction with oxygen vacancies for enhanced removal of ciprofloxacin: Investigation of degradation efficiency and mechanism","volume":"71","author":"Fan","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Water Process Eng."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42545","DOI":"10.1039\/D5RA05129K","article-title":"Bi2MoO6-based photocatalysts: Engineering strategies for environmental and energy applications","volume":"15","author":"Li","year":"2025","journal-title":"RSC Adv."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129042","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2023.129042","article-title":"Tannic acid and carboxymethyl chitosan-based multi-functional double-layered hydrogel with pH-stimulated response behavior for smart real-time infection monitoring and wound treatment","volume":"261","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105685","DOI":"10.1016\/j.surfin.2024.105685","article-title":"Investigation of the visible light photocatalytic antibacterial properties of Cu2O\/UiO-66\/Bi2MoO6 composites with double Z-type heterojunction","volume":"56","author":"Han","year":"2025","journal-title":"Surf. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135231","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seppur.2025.135231","article-title":"Engineered zinc-doped bismuth oxybromide nanospeheres as visible light-responsive photocatalyst for efficient erradication of drug-resistant Escherichia coli","volume":"380","author":"Luo","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sep. Purif. Technol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132981","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seppur.2025.132981","article-title":"Morphological modulation of copper-doped BiOBr nanomaterial with improved visible light photocatalytic activity for drug-resistant bacteria elimination","volume":"368","author":"Yang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sep. Purif. Technol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14860","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.2c05756","article-title":"Treating multi-drug-resistant bacterial infections by functionalized nano-bismuth sulfide through the synergy of immunotherapy and bacteria-sensitive phototherapy","volume":"16","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145376","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2025.145376","article-title":"Metal-carbon dual network reinforced bismuth-based chitosan hydrogels for improved photoresponsiveness, antibacterial activity, and wound healing","volume":"319","author":"Ding","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13024","DOI":"10.1039\/D5NJ01633A","article-title":"Hierarchical 0D\/3D Z-scheme heterojunction of ZnO quantum dots\/flower-like Bi2MoO6 microspheres for efficient photocatalytic degradation of tetracycline","volume":"49","author":"Chen","year":"2025","journal-title":"New J. Chem."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7207","DOI":"10.1039\/D3TA07981C","article-title":"Enhancement effect of oxygen vacancy on photocatalytic CO2 reduction","volume":"12","author":"Yang","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Mater. Chem. A"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11182","DOI":"10.1039\/D3CP06126D","article-title":"A comprehensive review of oxygen vacancy modified photocatalysts: Synthesis, characterization, and applications","volume":"26","author":"Zhan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116428","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jece.2025.116428","article-title":"Bismuth oxyhalides (BiOX (X= Cl, Br, I)) based composites for photocatalytic antibacterial: Modification strategies, antibacterial mechanisms and prospects","volume":"13","author":"Xiang","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Environ. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132479","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2023.132479","article-title":"Mechanism analysis of surface structure-regulated Cu2O in photocatalytic antibacterial process","volume":"461","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1601","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules29071601","article-title":"Multi-Omics Study on Molecular Mechanisms of Single-Atom Fe-Doped Two-Dimensional Conjugated Phthalocyanine Framework for Photocatalytic Antibacterial Performance","volume":"29","author":"Diao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Molecules"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Diao, S., Ding, W., and Duan, Y. (2023). A Further Study on the Photocatalytic Antibacterial Molecular Mechanisms Of Two-Dimensional Conjugated Phthalocyanine Framework with Single Fe Atomic Through Multi-Omics Technology. SSRN, preprint.","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.4650997"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129954","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2022.129954","article-title":"Based on multi-omics technology study the antibacterial mechanisms of pH-dependent N-GQDs beyond ROS","volume":"441","author":"Wu","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tran, D.T., and Dahlin, A. (2024). Multi-omics approaches to resolve antimicrobial resistance. Antimicrobial Resistance: Factors to Findings: Omics and Systems Biology Approaches, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-65986-7_8"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Z., Xie, W., Luo, D., Wang, L., Xu, Y., Rosenn, E.H., and Soni, V. (2024). Omics-Based Approaches in Developing Treatments Against Antimicrobial Resistance\/\/Antimicrobial Resistance: Factors to Findings: Omics and Systems Biology Approaches, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-65986-7_12"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1591","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-51485-x","article-title":"Research progress on composite material of bismuth vanadate catalyzing the decomposition of Quinolone antibiotics","volume":"14","author":"Zhao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11263","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.langmuir.4c01034","article-title":"Synergistic Engineering of Energy Band Alignment and Interfacial Electric Field Distribution over Bi-bismuth-Based Hetero-nanofibers for Boosting Visible-Light-Driven Photocatalytic Ammonia Synthesis and Antibiotic Removal","volume":"40","author":"Wu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Langmuir"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106468","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jwpe.2024.106468","article-title":"Z-type heterojunction construction and photocatalytic performance of O-C3N4\/Bi2Mo2O9 composites for the effective degradation of tetracycline","volume":"68","author":"Du","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Water Process Eng."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2511512","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.202511512","article-title":"Enhanced sonodynamic bacterial elimination and wound healing therapy based on lanthanide ion doped Bi2WO6 nanosheets and hydrogel platform","volume":"35","author":"Lao","year":"2025","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, W., Margarita, G.E., Wu, D., Yuan, W., Yan, S., Qi, S., Xue, X., Wang, K., and Wu, L. (2022). Antibacterial activity of Chinese red propolis against Staphylococcus aureus and MRSA. Molecules, 27.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules27051693"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4741","DOI":"10.2147\/IDR.S411658","article-title":"Effect of three different amino acids plus gentamicin against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus","volume":"16","author":"Guo","year":"2023","journal-title":"Infect. Drug Resist."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1934578X251330198","DOI":"10.1177\/1934578X251330198","article-title":"Proteomic insights into the antimicrobial mechanism of chelerythrine against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus","volume":"20","author":"Liao","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nat. Product. Commun."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1134\/S1062359025601004","article-title":"The Activity and Mechanism of Resveratrol against Listeria monocytogenes: Disruption of the Cell Membrane and Impact on the ATP-Binding Cassette (ABC) Transporter Pathway","volume":"52","author":"Wu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Biol. Bull."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121772","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2023.121772","article-title":"Staphylococcus aureus enters viable-but-nonculturable state in response to chitooligosaccharide stress by altering metabolic pattern and transmembrane transport function","volume":"330","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15594","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.2c04276","article-title":"Reductive stress boosts the horizontal transfer of plasmid-borne antibiotic resistance genes: The neglected side of the intracellular redox spectrum","volume":"56","author":"Huang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2626","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-024-46917-1","article-title":"Bidirectional ATP-driven transport of cobalamin by the mycobacterial ABC transporter BacA","volume":"15","author":"Nijland","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119913","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2023.119913","article-title":"Synergistic molecular mechanism of degradation in dye wastewater by Rhodopseudomonas palustris intimately coupled carbon nanotube-Silver modified titanium dioxide photocatalytic composite with sodium alginate","volume":"351","author":"Chen","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126479","DOI":"10.1016\/j.talanta.2024.126479","article-title":"Proteomic and metabolic analysis of Moorella thermoacetica-g-C3N1 nanocomposite system for artificial photosynthesis","volume":"278","author":"Shen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"166901","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2025.166901","article-title":"Energetic photoexcited electrons and enhancement of metabolic function and electron transport promote carbon chain elongation in bacterium cadmium sulfide biohybrid systems","volume":"521","author":"Fan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"793","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tim.2021.12.007","article-title":"Nucleotide biosynthesis: The base of bacterial pathogenesis","volume":"30","author":"Goncheva","year":"2022","journal-title":"Trends Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00812-24","DOI":"10.1128\/msystems.00812-24","article-title":"Alterations in purine and pyrimidine metabolism associated with latent tuberculosis infection: Insights from gut microbiome and metabolomics analyses","volume":"9","author":"Yang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Msystems"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1473","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkae128","article-title":"Metabolic pathways and antimicrobial peptide resistance in bacteria","volume":"79","author":"Elbediwi","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."}],"container-title":["Biology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-7737\/15\/13\/993\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,1]],"date-time":"2026-07-01T17:55:04Z","timestamp":1782928504000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-7737\/15\/13\/993"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,24]]},"references-count":42,"journal-issue":{"issue":"13","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7]]}},"alternative-id":["biology15130993"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/biology15130993","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-7737"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-7737","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,24]]}}}