{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,8]],"date-time":"2026-11-08T11:44:23Z","timestamp":1794138263144,"version":"4.8.0"},"reference-count":66,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"13","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,26]],"date-time":"2026-06-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1782432000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100007288","name":"Mahasarakham University","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["-"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["-"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100007288","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["-"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["-"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/0453j3c58","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biology"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The carcinogenic liver fluke Opisthorchis viverrini underlies one of the world\u2019s heaviest burdens of bile duct cancer, yet for decades it was treated as a single, genetically uniform parasite whose transmission was shaped mainly by environment and human behavior. However, advances in molecular biology have fundamentally reshaped this conceptual model. Evidence accumulated over the past three decades demonstrates that O. viverrini comprises geographically structured populations linked to hydrological connectivity, host distribution, and long-term evolutionary processes across interconnected river systems of mainland Southeast Asia, particularly within the Lower Mekong Basin. This review synthesizes research on the systematics and population structure of O. viverrini and its Bithynia snail hosts, tracing the transition from early allozyme studies to contemporary DNA-based and genomic approaches. Collectively, mitochondrial, nuclear, microsatellite, and intron markers reveal strong spatial structuring among parasite populations, while genetic patterns observed in snail hosts show partial geographic concordance with parasite population structure, suggesting that both may be influenced by shared hydrological organization, ecological isolation, and host connectivity across endemic aquatic systems. Population structure is strongly scale-dependent, with local panmixia often occurring within connected aquatic systems but pronounced differentiation emerging across broader geographic regions. Together, these findings indicate that transmission dynamics are shaped not only by environmental and behavioral factors, but also by evolutionary and landscape-level processes influencing host and parasite connectivity. Finally, we emphasize the increasing significance of population genomics and landscape genetics in understanding how transmission systems persist, disperse, reconnect, and respond to environmental change across endemic landscapes.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/biology15131018","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,29]],"date-time":"2026-06-29T00:54:42Z","timestamp":1782694482000},"page":"1018","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["From Allozymes to Genomics: Reframing the Systematics and Population Structure of Opisthorchis viverrini and Its Bithynia Hosts"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-6838-0435","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Naruemon","family":"Bunchom","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Center of Excellence in Biodiversity Research, Mahasarakham University, Maha Sarakham 44150, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4789-297X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Weerachai","family":"Saijuntha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center of Excellence in Biodiversity Research, Mahasarakham University, Maha Sarakham 44150, Thailand"},{"name":"Faculty of Medicine, Mahasarakham University, Maha Sarakham 44000, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9480-1778","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paiboon","family":"Sithithaworn","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cholangiocarcinoma Research Institute, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen 40002, Thailand"},{"name":"Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen 40002, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9053-7631","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ross H.","family":"Andrews","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cholangiocarcinoma Research Institute, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen 40002, Thailand"},{"name":"Department of Surgery & Cancer, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College, London SW7 2AZ, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5305-2136","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alan D.","family":"Ziegler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Andaman Coastal Research Station for Development, Faculty of Fisheries, Kasetsart University, Ranong 85120, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chairat","family":"Tantrawatpan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Cell Biology, Department of Preclinical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, and Center of Excellence in Stem Cell Research and Innovation, Thammasat University, Rangsit Campus, Pathum Thani 12120, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2008.08.011","article-title":"Opisthorchis viverrini: An underestimated parasite in world health","volume":"24","author":"Andrews","year":"2008","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khuntikeo, N., Titapun, A., Loilome, W., Yongvanit, P., Thinkhamrop, B., Chamadol, N., Boonmars, T., Nethanomsak, T., Andrews, R.H., and Petney, T.N. (2018). Current perspectives on opisthorchiasis control and cholangiocarcinoma detection in Southeast Asia. Front. Med., 5.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2018.00117"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"IARC (1994). Infection with liver flukes (Opisthorchis viverrini, Opisthorchis felineus and Clonorchis sinensis). Schistosomes, Liver Flukes and Helicobacter pylori, International Agency for Research on Cancer."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trecan.2015.08.011","article-title":"Why does infection with some helminths cause cancer?","volume":"1","author":"Brindley","year":"2015","journal-title":"Trends Cancer"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1016\/j.parint.2011.07.019","article-title":"The ecology of the Bithynia first intermediate hosts of Opisthorchis viverrini","volume":"61","author":"Petney","year":"2012","journal-title":"Parasitol. Int."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liau, M.Y.Q., Toh, E.Q., and Shelat, V.G. (2023). Opisthorchis viverrini\u2014Current understanding of the neglected hepatobiliary parasite. Pathogens, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens12060795"},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"81","article-title":"Studies on Opisthorchis viverrini in Thailand","volume":"5","author":"Sadun","year":"1955","journal-title":"Am. J. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"O\u2019Connor, S.Y., Mationg, M.L., Kelly, M.J., Lowe, C., Williams, G.M., Clements, A.C., Sripa, B., Sayasone, S., Khieu, V., and Wangdi, K. (2025). Risk factors and control of Opisthorchis viverrini in the Lower Mekong Basin: A systematic review. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 19.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0013790"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1186\/s40249-024-01201-8","article-title":"Prevalence estimates of Opisthorchis viverrini and Clonorchis sinensis infection in the Greater Mekong subregion: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"13","author":"Sota","year":"2024","journal-title":"Infect. Dis. Poverty"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e59755","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.59755","article-title":"Model-based spatial-temporal mapping of opisthorchiasis in endemic countries of Southeast Asia","volume":"10","author":"Zhao","year":"2021","journal-title":"eLife"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kamber, L., B\u00fcrli, C., Harbrecht, H., Odermatt, P., Sayasone, S., and Chitnis, N. (2024). Modeling the persistence of Opisthorchis viverrini worm burden after mass-drug administration and education campaigns with systematic adherence. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 18.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0011362"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, C.S., Echaubard, P., Suwannatrai, A., Kaewkes, S., Wilcox, B.A., and Sripa, B. (2016). Seasonal and spatial environmental influence on Opisthorchis viverrini intermediate hosts, abundance, and distribution: Insights on transmission dynamics and sustainable control. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0005121"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1016\/bs.apar.2018.05.003","article-title":"Reservoir animals and their roles in transmission of Opisthorchis viverrini","volume":"101","author":"Tangkawattana","year":"2018","journal-title":"Adv. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105850","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2021.105850","article-title":"Investigation of possible alternate animal reservoir hosts of Opisthorchis viverrini","volume":"217","author":"Tangkawattana","year":"2021","journal-title":"Acta Trop."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"1164","article-title":"Opisthorchis viverrini: Life cycle, intermediate hosts, transmission to man and geographical distribution in Thailand","volume":"34","author":"Harinasuta","year":"1984","journal-title":"Arzneimittel-Forschung"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.1080\/00034983.1961.11686068","article-title":"The morphology of the metacercaria of Opisthorchis viverrini, with special reference to the excretory system","volume":"55","author":"Vajrasthira","year":"1961","journal-title":"Ann. Trop. Med. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.2307\/3276083","article-title":"Opisthorchis viverrini in Thailand: The life cycle and comparison with O. felineus","volume":"51","author":"Wykoff","year":"1965","journal-title":"J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105182","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meegid.2021.105182","article-title":"Current assessment of the systematics and population genetics of Opisthorchis viverrini sensu lato (Trematoda: Opisthorchiidae) and its first intermediate host Bithynia siamensis sensu lato (Gastropoda: Bithyniidae) in Thailand and Southeast Asia","volume":"97","author":"Saijuntha","year":"2022","journal-title":"Infect. Genet. Evol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2019.10.007","article-title":"Genetic structure and geographical variation of Bithynia siamensis goniomphalos sensu lato (Gastropoda: Bithyniidae), the snail intermediate host of Opisthorchis viverrini sensu lato (Digenea: Opisthorchiidae) in the Lower Mekong Basin revealed by mitochondrial DNA sequences","volume":"50","author":"Tantrawatpan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105980","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2021.105980","article-title":"Genetic structure and evidence for coexistence of three taxa of Bithynia (Gastropoda: Bithyniidae), the intermediate host of Opisthorchis viverrini sensu lato (Digenea: Opisthorchiidae) in Thailand examined by mitochondrial DNA sequences analysis","volume":"221","author":"Bunchom","year":"2021","journal-title":"Acta Trop."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1186\/s41182-025-00720-w","article-title":"Genetic structure and geographical distribution of Bithynia siamensis sensu lato from Khong and Mounlapamok districts, Champasak Province, Laos","volume":"53","author":"Bunchom","year":"2025","journal-title":"Trop. Med. Health"},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"375","article-title":"Isoenzyme characterization of Opisthorchis viverrini from man","volume":"37","author":"Sueblinvong","year":"1993","journal-title":"Chula. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2006.11.001","article-title":"Genetic markers for the identification and characterization of Opisthorchis viverrini, a medically important food borne trematode in Southeast Asia","volume":"100","author":"Saijuntha","year":"2006","journal-title":"Acta Trop."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"695","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2006.12.008","article-title":"Evidence of a species complex within the food-borne trematode Opisthorchis viverrini and possible co-evolution with their first intermediate hosts","volume":"37","author":"Saijuntha","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1057","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182009006441","article-title":"Impact of temporal changes and host factors on the genetic structure of a population of Opisthorchis viverrini sensu lato in Khon Kaen Province (Thailand)","volume":"136","author":"Saijuntha","year":"2009","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182000050861","article-title":"Patterns of sexual reproduction among parasitic platyhelminths","volume":"86","author":"Nollen","year":"1983","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"msaf291","DOI":"10.1093\/molbev\/msaf291","article-title":"Mitonuclear discordance of beetles shaped by incomplete lineage sorting and introgression","volume":"42","author":"Zhao","year":"2025","journal-title":"Mol. Biol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1479","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182008005015","article-title":"Mitochondrial DNA sequence variation among geographical isolates of Opisthorchis viverrini in Thailand and Lao PDR, and phylogenetic relationships with other trematodes","volume":"135","author":"Saijuntha","year":"2008","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.1016\/j.parint.2010.02.009","article-title":"Monophyly of Opisthorchis viverrini populations in the lower Mekong Basin, using mitochondrial DNA nad1 gene as the marker","volume":"59","author":"Thaenkham","year":"2010","journal-title":"Parasitol. Int."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meegid.2018.04.022","article-title":"Phylogenetic relationships within the Opisthorchis viverrini species complex with specific analysis of O. viverrini sensu lato from Sakon Nakhon, Thailand by mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequencing","volume":"62","author":"Pitaksakulrat","year":"2018","journal-title":"Infect. Genet. Evol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Suwannahitatorn, P., Mungthin, M., Subrungruang, I., Charoensuk, L., Aksorn, N., and Buathong, S. (2024). Study of the population genetic structure of Opisthorchis-like eggs in northern Thailand using mitochondrial genes. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 18.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0012445"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Avise, J.C. (2000). Phylogeography: The History and Formation of Species, Harvard University Press.","DOI":"10.2307\/j.ctv1nzfgj7"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.16-0165","article-title":"Development of a PCR assay for diagnosing trematode (Opisthorchis and Haplorchis) infections in human stools","volume":"96","author":"Lamaningao","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Buathong, S., Leelayoova, S., Mungthin, M., Ruang-Areerate, T., Naaglor, T., Suwannahitatorn, P., Piyaraj, P., Taamasri, P., and Tan-Ariya, P. (2017). Molecular discrimination of Opisthorchis-like eggs from residents in a rural community of central Thailand. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0006030"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1118","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.20-0231","article-title":"Genetic differentiation of Opisthorchis-like eggs in northern Thailand using stool specimens under national strategic plan to control liver fluke infection and cholangiocarcinoma","volume":"103","author":"Buathong","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-021-04737-y","article-title":"Assessing the suitability of mitochondrial and nuclear DNA genetic markers for molecular systematics and species identification of helminths","volume":"14","author":"Chan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Parasit. Vectors"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"312","DOI":"10.1590\/1678-4685-GMB-2016-0027","article-title":"Microsatellite markers: What they mean and why they are so useful","volume":"39","author":"Vieira","year":"2016","journal-title":"Genet. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2024.04.006","article-title":"Exploring the second intermediate hosts and morphology of human- and cat-specific Opisthorchis viverrini-like populations","volume":"54","author":"Agustina","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tantrawatpan, C., Maleewong, W., Thanchomnang, T., Pilap, W., Agatsuma, T., Andrews, R.H., Sithithaworn, P., and Saijuntha, W. (2023). Intron regions as genetic markers for population genetic investigations of Opisthorchis viverrini sensu lato and Clonorchis sinensis. Animals, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani13203200"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vaisusuk, K., Chatan, W., Pilap, W., Thanchomnang, T., Jaroenchaiwattanachote, C., Sithithaworn, P., Andrews, R.H., Tantrawatpan, C., and Saijuntha, W. (2025). Parasitic helminth infections and intron sequence genotyping of Opisthorchis viverrini-like eggs in outdoor domestic cats and dogs across the Chi River Basin, Maha Sarakham Province, Thailand. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26073005"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.12688\/wellcomeopenres.23535.1","article-title":"The genome sequence of the liver fluke Opisthorchis viverrini (Poirier, 1886) Stiles & Hassall, 1896","volume":"10","author":"Wangwiwatsin","year":"2025","journal-title":"Wellcome Open Res."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Brandt, R.A.M. (1974). The Non-Marine Aquatic Mollusca of Thailand, Archiv f\u00fcr Molluskenkunde."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"948","DOI":"10.1086\/686912","article-title":"Environmental drivers of shell shape in a freshwater gastropod from small and large lakes","volume":"35","author":"Cazenave","year":"2016","journal-title":"Freshw. Sci."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.31931\/fmbc-d-20-00015","article-title":"Phenotypic plasticity and the endless forms of freshwater gastropod shells","volume":"24","author":"Whelan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Freshw. Mollusk Biol. Conserv."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kulsantiwong, J., Prasopdee, S., Ruangsittichai, J., Ruangjirachuporn, W., Boonmars, T., Viyanant, V., Pierossi, P., Hebert, P.D.N., and Tesana, S. (2013). DNA barcode identification of freshwater snails in the family Bithyniidae from Thailand. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0079144"},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"QGIS Development Team (2026, May 13). QGIS Geographic Information System. Open Source Geospatial Foundation Project. Available online: https:\/\/www.qgis.org\/en\/site\/."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e21","DOI":"10.24072\/pcjournal.29","article-title":"Connectivity and selfing drives population genetic structure in a patchy landscape: A comparative approach of four co-occurring freshwater snail species","volume":"1","author":"Jarne","year":"2021","journal-title":"Peer Community J."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1971","DOI":"10.1111\/fwb.13990","article-title":"Even short-distance dispersal over a barrier can affect genetic differentiation in Gyraulus, an island freshwater snail","volume":"67","author":"Saito","year":"2022","journal-title":"Freshw. Biol."},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"303","article-title":"Waterborne parasitic diseases: Hydrology, regional development, and control","volume":"Volume 3","author":"Wilderer","year":"2011","journal-title":"Treatise on Water Science"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"496","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-024-06591-0","article-title":"Genus Bithynia: Morphological classification to molecular identification","volume":"17","author":"Huang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Parasit. Vectors"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bunchom, N., Kongim, B., Manphae, A., Pilap, W., Andrews, R.H., Tantrawatpan, C., and Saijuntha, W. (2026). Morphological Differentiation among Three Mitochondrial Lineages of Hydrobioides nassa (Gastropoda: Bithyniidae) from Thailand. Biology, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/biology15050420"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e29","DOI":"10.1017\/S0022149X23000123","article-title":"Population genomics of helminth parasites","volume":"97","author":"Thorn","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Helminthol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"981","DOI":"10.1038\/nrg1226","article-title":"The power and promise of population genomics: From genotyping to genome typing","volume":"4","author":"Luikart","year":"2003","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Genet."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mattiucci, S., Cipriani, P., Canestrelli, D., Nascetti, G., and Palomba, M. (2025). Molecular approaches for investigating the population genetic structure of aquatic parasites. Aquatic Parasitology: Ecological and Environmental Concepts and Implications of Marine and Freshwater Parasites, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-83903-0_9"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4378","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms5378","article-title":"The Opisthorchis viverrini genome provides insights into life in the bile duct","volume":"5","author":"Young","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1016\/bs.apar.2018.06.002","article-title":"Opisthorchis viverrini proteome and host-parasite interactions","volume":"102","author":"Suttiprapa","year":"2018","journal-title":"Adv. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Taweesin, W., Kulwong, S., Jamnongkan, W., Taron, W., Siriprayong, A., Sitthirak, S., Techasen, A., Pitaksakulrat, O., Namwat, N., and Klanrit, P. (2015). Transcriptomics analysis of in vivo Opisthorchis viverrini: Stage-specific gene expression and novel genes with stable expression in mammalian stages for opisthorchiasis intervention. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 19.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0013714"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5609","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1201423109","article-title":"Trading-off fish biodiversity, food security, and hydropower in the Mekong River Basin","volume":"109","author":"Ziv","year":"2012","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"252","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolmodel.2013.10.015","article-title":"Impacts of hydropower and climate change on drivers of ecological productivity of Southeast Asia\u2019s most important wetland","volume":"272","author":"Arias","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ecol. Model."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1316","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182013000784","article-title":"Host traits explain the genetic structure of parasites: A meta-analysis","volume":"140","author":"Poulin","year":"2013","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-019-1111-9","article-title":"Mapping the world\u2019s free-flowing rivers","volume":"569","author":"Grill","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"300","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijppaw.2020.05.003","article-title":"Fish out of water: Aquatic parasites in a drying world","volume":"12","author":"Lymbery","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol. Parasites Wildl."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2679","DOI":"10.31557\/APJCP.2024.25.8.2679","article-title":"Re-infection rate of Opisthorchis viverrini five years after treatment with praziquantel in high-risk area: A community-based study","volume":"25","author":"Saengsawang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Asian Pac. J. Cancer Prev."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Boueroy, P., Phetburom, N., Hardthakwong, B., Kammoolkon, R., Rattanahon, P., Chopjitt, P., Fakkaew, N., Suwannaboon, P., Krueakaew, C., and Yasaka, P. (2026). Impact of community-based health education and sanitation interventions on Opisthorchis viverrini infection in an endemic area of Northeastern Thailand. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph23050553"},{"key":"ref_65","unstructured":"WHO (2026, April 15). Promoting Prevention and Control of Foodborne Trematode Infections Using a One Health Approach. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/activities\/promoting-prevention-and-control-of-foodborne-trematode-infections-using-a-one-health-approach."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"849","DOI":"10.1111\/mec.13527","article-title":"Navigating the pitfalls and promise of landscape genetics","volume":"25","author":"Richardson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mol. Ecol."}],"container-title":["Biology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-7737\/15\/13\/1018\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,2]],"date-time":"2026-07-02T04:14:27Z","timestamp":1782965667000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-7737\/15\/13\/1018"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,26]]},"references-count":66,"journal-issue":{"issue":"13","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7]]}},"alternative-id":["biology15131018"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/biology15131018","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-7737"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-7737","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,26]]}}}