{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,10]],"date-time":"2026-07-10T16:14:10Z","timestamp":1783700050260,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":275,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"14","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,10]],"date-time":"2026-07-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1783641600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biology"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Autoimmune diseases arise from a breakdown of immune tolerance and complex interplay of genetic susceptibility, environmental triggers, tissue-specific immune responses, microbiota, and regulatory pathways. Mouse models remain essential for dissecting these mechanisms, but no single model fully reproduces the heterogeneity, chronicity, and immune complexity of autoimmune disease in humans. This review summarizes classical murine and humanized mouse models used to study inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), multiple sclerosis (MS), type-1 diabetes (T1D), and rheumatoid arthritis (RA). We also highlight disease-specific scoring systems, including clinical indices, histopathology, imaging, cytokine profiling, autoantibody assessment, and human immune-cell readouts, as essential tools for standardized interpretation. Conventional murine models provide experimental control and mechanistic clarity, whereas humanized models improve assessment of human immune responses, patient-specific biology, and therapeutic translation. However, humanized systems remain limited by incomplete immune reconstitution, graft-versus-host disease, donor variability, cost, and incomplete tissue architecture. By providing a comparative framework spanning both conventional and humanized models, this review aims to guide informed model selection tailored to specific research questions in autoimmune disease biology and translational therapeutic development.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/biology15141125","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,10]],"date-time":"2026-07-10T15:13:36Z","timestamp":1783696416000},"page":"1125","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Murine and Humanized Mouse Models in Autoimmune Disease Research and Therapeutics Development"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1796-671X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sameena","family":"Nikhat","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Immunology, Mayo Clinic, Phoenix, AZ 85054, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5921-3436","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Suman","family":"Bose","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Immunology, Mayo Clinic, Phoenix, AZ 85054, USA"},{"name":"Department of Physiology and Biomedical Engineering, Mayo Clinic, Phoenix, AZ 85054, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-2385-3714","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohsen","family":"Khosravi-Maharlooei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Immunology, Mayo Clinic, Phoenix, AZ 85054, USA"},{"name":"Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Mayo Clinic, Phoenix, AZ 85054, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"509","DOI":"10.1038\/s41581-023-00720-1","article-title":"Pathogenesis of autoimmune disease","volume":"19","author":"Pisetsky","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-024-01952-8","article-title":"Evolving understanding of autoimmune mechanisms and new therapeutic strategies of autoimmune disorders","volume":"9","author":"Song","year":"2024","journal-title":"Signal Transduct. Target. Ther."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1395","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1075958","article-title":"Projection of an immunological self shadow within the thymus by the aire protein","volume":"298","author":"Anderson","year":"2002","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100681","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnha.2025.100681","article-title":"Global, regional, and national burden of autoimmune disease in older adults (\u226560 years) from 1990 to 2021: Results from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021","volume":"29","author":"Zeng","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Nutr. Health Aging"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, M., Zhai, H., Li, H., Wei, F., Ma, H., Liu, Y., Li, W., and Wei, P. (2024). Age-standardized incidence, prevalence, and mortality rates of autoimmune diseases in adolescents and young adults (15\u201339 years): An analysis based on the global burden of disease study 2021. BMC Public Health, 24.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-024-19290-3"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1038\/nri3667","article-title":"Positive and negative selection of the T cell repertoire: What thymocytes see (and don\u2019t see)","volume":"14","author":"Klein","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"a007146","DOI":"10.1101\/cshperspect.a007146","article-title":"Central B-cell tolerance: Where selection begins","volume":"4","author":"Pelanda","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Biol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-025-02326-4","article-title":"Regulatory T cells in homeostasis and disease: Molecular mechanisms and therapeutic potential","volume":"10","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Signal Transduct. Target. Ther."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1111\/imr.12173","article-title":"Once a Treg, always a Treg?","volume":"259","author":"Sawant","year":"2014","journal-title":"Immunol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1038\/nm.3432","article-title":"Pathogenic conversion of Foxp3+ T cells into TH17 cells in autoimmune arthritis","volume":"20","author":"Komatsu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1093\/jleuko\/qiae049","article-title":"Stability and plasticity of regulatory T cells in health and disease","volume":"116","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Leukoc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1085","DOI":"10.1038\/ng.3379","article-title":"Widespread non-additive and interaction effects within HLA loci modulate the risk of autoimmune diseases","volume":"47","author":"Lenz","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Genet."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2014.03.011","article-title":"Role of the microbiota in immunity and inflammation","volume":"157","author":"Belkaid","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1038\/nature18848","article-title":"The microbiota in adaptive immune homeostasis and disease","volume":"535","author":"Honda","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.1038\/ng.3760","article-title":"Genome-wide association study implicates immune activation of multiple integrin genes in inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"49","author":"Moutsianas","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Genet."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"485","DOI":"10.1126\/science.adg2992","article-title":"Common genetic factors among autoimmune diseases","volume":"380","author":"Harroud","year":"2023","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2743","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-023-38389-6","article-title":"Cross-disorder genetic analysis of immune diseases reveals distinct gene associations that converge on common pathways","volume":"14","author":"Demela","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1038\/ng1058","article-title":"Positional identification of Ncf1 as a gene that regulates arthritis severity in rats","volume":"33","author":"Olofsson","year":"2003","journal-title":"Nat. Genet."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.1038\/ng.3782","article-title":"A missense variant in NCF1 is associated with susceptibility to multiple autoimmune diseases","volume":"49","author":"Zhao","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Genet."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2014.01.028","article-title":"Diagnosis and classification of ulcerative colitis","volume":"13","author":"Conrad","year":"2014","journal-title":"Autoimmun. Rev."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v20.i1.6","article-title":"Immunopathology of inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"20","author":"Wallace","year":"2014","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1038\/nature10209","article-title":"Genetics and pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"474","author":"Khor","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1038\/nrgastro.2015.186","article-title":"Immunopathogenesis of IBD: Current state of the art","volume":"13","author":"Fiocchi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schmitt, H., Neurath, M.F., and Atreya, R. (2021). Role of the IL23\/IL17 Pathway in Crohn\u2019s Disease. Front. Immunol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.622934"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"992","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2019.03.017","article-title":"Cytokine Networks in the Pathophysiology of Inflammatory Bowel Disease","volume":"50","author":"Friedrich","year":"2019","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"659","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2022.05.029","article-title":"Neutralizing Anti-Granulocyte Macrophage-Colony Stimulating Factor Autoantibodies Recognize Post-Translational Glycosylations on Granulocyte Macrophage-Colony Stimulating Factor Years Before Diagnosis and Predict Complicated Crohn\u2019s Disease","volume":"163","author":"Mortha","year":"2022","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1490","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI19836","article-title":"Nonclassical CD1d-restricted NK T cells that produce IL-13 characterize an atypical Th2 response in ulcerative colitis","volume":"113","author":"Fuss","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"550","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gastro.2005.05.002","article-title":"Interleukin-13 is the key effector Th2 cytokine in ulcerative colitis that affects epithelial tight junctions, apoptosis, and cell restitution","volume":"129","author":"Heller","year":"2005","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S31","DOI":"10.1038\/mi.2008.40","article-title":"The role of IL-13 and NK T cells in experimental and human ulcerative colitis","volume":"1","author":"Fuss","year":"2008","journal-title":"Mucosal Immunol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1047","DOI":"10.1002\/ueg2.12319","article-title":"Environmental risk factors for inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"10","author":"Singh","year":"2022","journal-title":"United Eur. Gastroenterol. J."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"694","DOI":"10.1016\/0016-5085(90)90290-H","article-title":"A novel method in the induction of reliable experimental acute and chronic ulcerative colitis in mice","volume":"98","author":"Okayasu","year":"1990","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"G1328","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpgi.00467.2004","article-title":"Acute colitis induced by dextran sulfate sodium progresses to chronicity in C57BL\/6 but not in BALB\/c mice: Correlation between symptoms and inflammation","volume":"288","author":"Melgar","year":"2005","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1007\/s10620-010-1240-3","article-title":"Induction and activation of adaptive immune populations during acute and chronic phases of a murine model of experimental colitis","volume":"56","author":"Hall","year":"2011","journal-title":"Dig. Dis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"240","DOI":"10.1177\/0023677217742681","article-title":"A refined and translationally relevant model of chronic DSS colitis in BALB\/c mice","volume":"52","author":"Hoffmann","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lab. Anim."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7047201","DOI":"10.1155\/2017\/7047201","article-title":"Th1\/Th2 Balance and Th17\/Treg-Mediated Immunity in relation to Murine Resistance to Dextran Sulfate-Induced Colitis","volume":"2017","author":"Yang","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Immunol. Res."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4341","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v24.i38.4341","article-title":"Temporal clinical, proteomic, histological and cellular immune responses of dextran sulfate sodium-induced acute colitis","volume":"24","author":"Nunes","year":"2018","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gelmez, E., Lehr, K., Kershaw, O., Frentzel, S., Vilchez-Vargas, R., Bank, U., Link, A., Schuler, T., Jeron, A., and Bruder, D. (2022). Characterization of Maladaptive Processes in Acute, Chronic and Remission Phases of Experimental Colitis in C57BL\/6 Mice. Biomedicines, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines10081903"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"382","DOI":"10.1097\/01.MIB.0000218764.06959.91","article-title":"Critical role of IL-17 receptor signaling in acute TNBS-induced colitis","volume":"12","author":"Zhang","year":"2006","journal-title":"Inflamm. Bowel Dis."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"548","DOI":"10.1089\/jir.2012.0030","article-title":"IL-17\/IFN-gamma interactions regulate intestinal inflammation in TNBS-induced acute colitis","volume":"32","author":"Jin","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Interferon Cytokine Res."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Silva, I., Solas, J., Pinto, R., and Mateus, V. (2022). Chronic Experimental Model of TNBS-Induced Colitis to Study Inflammatory Bowel Disease. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23094739"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1007\/s00441-024-03932-4","article-title":"TNBS colitis induces architectural changes and alpha-synuclein overexpression in mouse distal colon: A morphological study","volume":"399","author":"Casini","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cell Tissue Res."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1929","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.188.10.1929","article-title":"Oxazolone colitis: A murine model of T helper cell type 2 colitis treatable with antibodies to interleukin 4","volume":"188","author":"Boirivant","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"629","DOI":"10.1016\/S1074-7613(02)00453-3","article-title":"Oxazolone colitis, a Th2 colitis model resembling ulcerative colitis, is mediated by IL-13-producing NK-T cells","volume":"17","author":"Heller","year":"2002","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2006.04.020","article-title":"Muc2-deficient mice spontaneously develop colitis, indicating that MUC2 is critical for colonic protection","volume":"131","author":"Velcich","year":"2006","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15064","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0803124105","article-title":"The inner of the two Muc2 mucin-dependent mucus layers in colon is devoid of bacteria","volume":"105","author":"Johansson","year":"2008","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wenzel, U.A., Magnusson, M.K., Rydstrom, A., Jonstrand, C., Hengst, J., Johansson, M.E., Velcich, A., Ohman, L., Strid, H., and Sjovall, H. (2014). Spontaneous colitis in Muc2-deficient mice reflects clinical and cellular features of active ulcerative colitis. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0100217"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21135","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-78141-4","article-title":"Mucin-2 knockout is a model of intercellular junction defects, mitochondrial damage and ATP depletion in the intestinal epithelium","volume":"10","author":"Borisova","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1417","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20061929","article-title":"Increased susceptibility to colitis and colorectal tumors in mice lacking core 3-derived O-glycans","volume":"204","author":"An","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1016\/S0076-6879(10)79007-8","article-title":"Core 3-derived O-glycans are essential for intestinal mucus barrier function","volume":"479","author":"Xia","year":"2010","journal-title":"Methods Enzymol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1038\/mi.2016.45","article-title":"Core 1- and 3-derived O-glycans collectively maintain the colonic mucus barrier and protect against spontaneous colitis in mice","volume":"10","author":"Bergstrom","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mucosal Immunol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"557","DOI":"10.1038\/nature05698","article-title":"Epithelial NEMO links innate immunity to chronic intestinal inflammation","volume":"446","author":"Nenci","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"552","DOI":"10.1038\/nature05590","article-title":"Epithelial-cell-intrinsic IKK-beta expression regulates intestinal immune homeostasis","volume":"446","author":"Zaph","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1038\/cr.2010.175","article-title":"NF-kappaB in the regulation of epithelial homeostasis and inflammation","volume":"21","author":"Wullaert","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cell Res."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"553","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2016.02.020","article-title":"NEMO Prevents RIP Kinase 1-Mediated Epithelial Cell Death and Chronic Intestinal Inflammation by NF-kappaB-Dependent and -Independent Functions","volume":"44","author":"Vlantis","year":"2016","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1016\/0092-8674(93)80068-P","article-title":"Interleukin-10-deficient mice develop chronic enterocolitis","volume":"75","author":"Kuhn","year":"1993","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"290","DOI":"10.1097\/00054725-200011000-00006","article-title":"Heritable susceptibility for colitis in mice induced by IL-10 deficiency","volume":"6","author":"Bristol","year":"2000","journal-title":"Inflamm. Bowel Dis."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"943","DOI":"10.1002\/ibd.21895","article-title":"Strain-specific colitis susceptibility in IL10-deficient mice depends on complex gut microbiota-host interactions","volume":"18","author":"Buchler","year":"2012","journal-title":"Inflamm. Bowel Dis."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"493","DOI":"10.1038\/s41385-019-0252-3","article-title":"The development of colitis in Il10\u2212\/\u2212 mice is dependent on IL-22","volume":"13","author":"Gunasekera","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mucosal Immunol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/S1074-7613(00)80005-9","article-title":"Enhanced Th1 activity and development of chronic enterocolitis in mice devoid of Stat3 in macrophages and neutrophils","volume":"10","author":"Takeda","year":"1999","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1297","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI17085","article-title":"Toll-like receptor-dependent production of IL-12p40 causes chronic enterocolitis in myeloid cell-specific Stat3-deficient mice","volume":"111","author":"Kobayashi","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2007.08.017","article-title":"Communicable ulcerative colitis induced by T-bet deficiency in the innate immune system","volume":"131","author":"Garrett","year":"2007","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"674","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2012.09.008","article-title":"The transcription factor T-bet regulates intestinal inflammation mediated by interleukin-7 receptor+ innate lymphoid cells","volume":"37","author":"Powell","year":"2012","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1136\/gut.43.1.71","article-title":"Inflammatory bowel disease-like enteritis and caecitis in a senescence accelerated mouse P1\/Yit strain","volume":"43","author":"Matsumoto","year":"1998","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"966","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2007.01.008","article-title":"Identification of a chemokine network that recruits FoxP3(+) regulatory T cells into chronically inflamed intestine","volume":"132","author":"Kang","year":"2007","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1461","DOI":"10.1093\/intimm\/5.11.1461","article-title":"Phenotypically distinct subsets of CD4+ T cells induce or protect from chronic intestinal inflammation in C. B-17 scid mice","volume":"5","author":"Powrie","year":"1993","journal-title":"Int. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.192.2.295","article-title":"Cytotoxic T lymphocyte-associated antigen 4 plays an essential role in the function of CD25(+)CD4(+) regulatory cells that control intestinal inflammation","volume":"192","author":"Read","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1321","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20092253","article-title":"Microbiota innate stimulation is a prerequisite for T cell spontaneous proliferation and induction of experimental colitis","volume":"207","author":"Feng","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"G135","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpgi.90462.2008","article-title":"T cell transfer model of chronic colitis: Concepts, considerations, and tricks of the trade","volume":"296","author":"Ostanin","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"985","DOI":"10.1242\/dmm.025452","article-title":"A mouse model for ulcerative colitis based on NOD-scid IL2R gammanull mice reconstituted with peripheral blood mononuclear cells from affected individuals","volume":"9","author":"Palamides","year":"2016","journal-title":"Dis. Model. Mech."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1186\/s12967-017-1368-4","article-title":"Design and validation of a disease network of inflammatory processes in the NSG-UC mouse model","volume":"15","author":"Jodeleit","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"557","DOI":"10.1093\/ibd\/izz284","article-title":"The Combination of Patient Profiling and Preclinical Studies in a Mouse Model Based on NOD\/Scid IL2Rgamma null Mice Reconstituted with Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells From Patients with Ulcerative Colitis May Lead to Stratification of Patients for Treatment with Adalimumab","volume":"26","author":"Jodeleit","year":"2020","journal-title":"Inflamm. Bowel Dis."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wess, V., Schuster-Winkelmann, P., Karatekin, Y.H., Malik, S., Beigel, F., Kuhn, F., and Gropp, R. (2023). Humanized NSG Mouse Models as a Preclinical Tool for Translational Research in Inflammatory Bowel Diseases. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms241512348"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1631","DOI":"10.1002\/iid3.516","article-title":"NOD\/scid IL-2Rgamma(null) mice reconstituted with peripheral blood mononuclear cells from patients with Crohn\u2019s disease reflect the human pathological phenotype","volume":"9","author":"Unterweger","year":"2021","journal-title":"Immun. Inflamm. Dis."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tyagi, R.K., Jacobse, J., Li, J., Allaman, M.M., Otipoby, K.L., Sampson, E.R., Wilson, K.T., and Goettel, J.A. (2021). HLA-Restriction of Human Treg Cells Is Not Required for Therapeutic Efficacy of Low-Dose IL-2 in Humanized Mice. Front. Immunol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.630204"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2535","DOI":"10.1093\/ibd\/izaf141","article-title":"Novel Autologous Regulatory T-Cell Therapy Ameliorates DSS-Induced Colitis in Humanized Mice","volume":"31","author":"Khan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Inflamm. Bowel Dis."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1318","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2016.09.082","article-title":"AHR Activation Is Protective against Colitis Driven by T Cells in Humanized Mice","volume":"17","author":"Goettel","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_77","first-page":"238","article-title":"Clinicopathologic study of dextran sulfate sodium experimental murine colitis","volume":"69","author":"Cooper","year":"1993","journal-title":"Lab. Investig."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1295","DOI":"10.1038\/nprot.2017.044","article-title":"Chemically induced mouse models of acute and chronic intestinal inflammation","volume":"12","author":"Wirtz","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Protoc."},{"key":"ref_79","first-page":"4557","article-title":"A guide to histomorphological evaluation of intestinal inflammation in mouse models","volume":"7","author":"Erben","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Clin. Exp. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2307","DOI":"10.1038\/nprot.2007.315","article-title":"Isolation and subsequent analysis of murine lamina propria mononuclear cells from colonic tissue","volume":"2","author":"Weigmann","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nat. Protoc."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1002\/ibd.20753","article-title":"Distinct cytokine patterns identified from multiplex profiles of murine DSS and TNBS-induced colitis","volume":"15","author":"Alex","year":"2009","journal-title":"Inflamm. Bowel Dis."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1221","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(02)08220-X","article-title":"Multiple sclerosis","volume":"359","author":"Compston","year":"2002","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"(2011). The International Multiple Sclerosis Genetics Consortium & The Wellcome Trust Case Control Consortium 2. Genetic risk and a primary role for cell-mediated immune mechanisms in multiple sclerosis. Nature, 476, 214\u2013219.","DOI":"10.1038\/nature10251"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"The International Multiple Sclerosis Genetics Consortium (2007). Risk alleles for multiple sclerosis identified by a genomewide study. N. Engl. J. Med., 357, 851\u2013862.","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa073493"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e000053","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2011-000053","article-title":"Systematic review of genome-wide expression studies in multiple sclerosis","volume":"1","author":"Kemppinen","year":"2011","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-025-09378-0","article-title":"EBV induces CNS homing of B cells attracting inflammatory T cells","volume":"646","author":"Laderach","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eadu5110","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.adu5110","article-title":"Epstein-Barr virus infection promotes T cell dysregulation in a humanized mouse model of multiple sclerosis","volume":"11","author":"Allanach","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-025-02415-4","article-title":"Multiple sclerosis: Molecular pathogenesis and therapeutic intervention","volume":"10","author":"Eixarch","year":"2025","journal-title":"Signal Transduct. Target. Ther."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1173","DOI":"10.1038\/nm1651","article-title":"Human TH17 lymphocytes promote blood-brain barrier disruption and central nervous system inflammation","volume":"13","author":"Kebir","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"744","DOI":"10.1038\/nature01355","article-title":"Interleukin-23 rather than interleukin-12 is the critical cytokine for autoimmune inflammation of the brain","volume":"421","author":"Cua","year":"2003","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"560","DOI":"10.1038\/ni.2027","article-title":"RORgammat drives production of the cytokine GM-CSF in helper T cells, which is essential for the effector phase of autoimmune neuroinflammation","volume":"12","author":"Codarri","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.192.3.393","article-title":"Clonal expansions of CD8(+) T cells dominate the T cell infiltrate in active multiple sclerosis lesions as shown by micromanipulation and single cell polymerase chain reaction","volume":"192","author":"Babbe","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.1038\/s41582-021-00498-5","article-title":"B cells in multiple sclerosis\u2014From targeted depletion to immune reconstitution therapies","volume":"17","author":"Cencioni","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"971","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20031579","article-title":"Loss of functional suppression by CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells in patients with multiple sclerosis","volume":"199","author":"Viglietta","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1810","DOI":"10.1038\/nprot.2006.285","article-title":"Active induction of experimental allergic encephalomyelitis","volume":"1","author":"Stromnes","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nat. Protoc."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1079","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1476-5381.2011.01302.x","article-title":"Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) as a model for multiple sclerosis (MS)","volume":"164","author":"Constantinescu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Br. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1533","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20132477","article-title":"Differential roles of microglia and monocytes in the inflamed central nervous system","volume":"211","author":"Yamasaki","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Melamed, E., Palmer, J.L., and Fonken, C. (2022). Advantages and limitations of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis in breaking down the role of the gut microbiome in multiple sclerosis. Front. Mol. Neurosci., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnmol.2022.1019877"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1038\/317355a0","article-title":"T-cell clones specific for myelin basic protein induce chronic relapsing paralysis and demyelination","volume":"317","author":"Zamvil","year":"1985","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1016\/0165-5728(93)90242-Q","article-title":"Adoptive transfer of murine experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis in SJL.Thy-1 congenic mouse strains","volume":"46","author":"Kim","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Neuroimmunol."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1016\/0165-5728(90)90038-O","article-title":"Serial adoptive transfer of murine experimental allergic encephalomyelitis: Successful transfer is dependent on active disease in the donor","volume":"28","author":"Cross","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Neuroimmunol."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1535","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20080159","article-title":"IL-12- and IL-23-modulated T cells induce distinct types of EAE based on histology, CNS chemokine profile, and response to cytokine inhibition","volume":"205","author":"Kroenke","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1343","DOI":"10.1002\/jnr.21946","article-title":"Cuprizone treatment induces demyelination and astrocytosis in the mouse hippocampus","volume":"87","author":"Norkute","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Neurosci. Res."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1007\/s12311-009-0099-3","article-title":"Cuprizone treatment induces distinct demyelination, astrocytosis, and microglia cell invasion or proliferation in the mouse cerebellum","volume":"8","author":"Groebe","year":"2009","journal-title":"Cerebellum"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhan, J., Mann, T., Joost, S., Behrangi, N., Frank, M., and Kipp, M. (2020). The Cuprizone Model: Dos and Do Nots. Cells, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells9040843"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1147","DOI":"10.1128\/iai.11.5.1147-1155.1975","article-title":"Theiler\u2019s virus infection in mice: An unusual biphasic disease process leading to demyelination","volume":"11","author":"Lipton","year":"1975","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1867","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02471-14","article-title":"The level of viral infection of antigen-presenting cells correlates with the level of development of Theiler\u2019s murine encephalomyelitis virus-induced demyelinating disease","volume":"89","author":"Jin","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Leitzen, E., Jin, W., Herder, V., Beineke, A., Elmarabet, S.A., Baumgartner, W., and Hansmann, F. (2019). Comparison of Reported Spinal Cord Lesions in Progressive Multiple Sclerosis with Theiler\u2019s Murine Encephalomyelitis Virus Induced Demyelinating Disease. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms20040989"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jin, Y.H., Kim, C.X., Huang, J., and Kim, B.S. (2020). Infection and Activation of B Cells by Theiler\u2019s Murine Encephalomyelitis Virus (TMEV) Leads to Autoantibody Production in an Infectious Model of Multiple Sclerosis. Cells, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells9081787"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.1038\/15525","article-title":"A humanized model for multiple sclerosis using HLA-DR2 and a human T-cell receptor","volume":"23","author":"Madsen","year":"1999","journal-title":"Nat. Genet."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20030994","article-title":"Unique clinical and pathological features in HLA-DRB1*0401-restricted MBP 111\u2013129-specific humanized TCR transgenic mice","volume":"200","author":"Quandt","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2897","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1103087","article-title":"Myelin basic protein-specific TCR\/HLA-DRB5*01:01 transgenic mice support the etiologic role of DRB5*01:01 in multiple sclerosis","volume":"189","author":"Quandt","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"338","DOI":"10.1111\/imm.13321","article-title":"Regulation of EAE by spontaneously generated IL-10-secreting regulatory T cells in HLA-DR15\/TCR.Ob1A12 double transgenic mice","volume":"163","author":"Ng","year":"2021","journal-title":"Immunology"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e5312","DOI":"10.21769\/BioProtoc.5312","article-title":"PBMC-Humanized Mouse Model for Multiple Sclerosis: Studying Immune Changes and CNS Involvement","volume":"15","author":"Dagkonaki","year":"2025","journal-title":"Bio Protoc."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"RP88826","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.88826.3","article-title":"Spontaneous human CD8 T cell and autoimmune encephalomyelitis-induced CD4\/CD8 T cell lesions in the brain and spinal cord of HLA-DRB1*15-positive multiple sclerosis humanized immune system mice","volume":"12","author":"Papazian","year":"2024","journal-title":"eLife"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Miller, S.D., and Karpus, W.J. (2007). Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis in the mouse. Curr. Protoc. Immunol., 77.","DOI":"10.1002\/0471142735.im1501s77"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.1016\/0092-8674(93)90074-Z","article-title":"Transgenic mice that express a myelin basic protein-specific T cell receptor develop spontaneous autoimmunity","volume":"72","author":"Goverman","year":"1993","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1073","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20021603","article-title":"Myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein-specific T cell receptor transgenic mice develop spontaneous autoimmune optic neuritis","volume":"197","author":"Bettelli","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(13)60591-7","article-title":"Type 1 diabetes","volume":"383","author":"Atkinson","year":"2014","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2589","DOI":"10.2337\/dci21-0043","article-title":"The Management of Type 1 Diabetes in Adults. A Consensus Report by the American Diabetes Association (ADA) and the European Association for the Study of Diabetes (EASD)","volume":"44","author":"Holt","year":"2021","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2249.2008.03860.x","article-title":"Analysis of islet inflammation in human type 1 diabetes","volume":"155","author":"Willcox","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2010.04.001","article-title":"Etiology of type 1 diabetes","volume":"32","author":"Todd","year":"2010","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"549","DOI":"10.1007\/s11892-014-0549-2","article-title":"Fine mapping of type 2 diabetes susceptibility loci","volume":"14","author":"Morris","year":"2014","journal-title":"Curr. Diabetes Rep."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"501","DOI":"10.1038\/nri2787","article-title":"Immune cell crosstalk in type 1 diabetes","volume":"10","author":"Lehuen","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1897","DOI":"10.2337\/dc11-0560","article-title":"Development of autoantibodies in the TrialNet Natural History Study","volume":"34","author":"Vehik","year":"2011","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_126","first-page":"1","article-title":"Breeding of a non-obese, diabetic strain of mice","volume":"29","author":"Makino","year":"1980","journal-title":"Jikken Dobutsu"},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-0716-0385-7_6","article-title":"Mouse Models of Autoimmune Diabetes: The Nonobese Diabetic (NOD) Mouse","volume":"2128","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Methods Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3885","DOI":"10.2337\/db15-0449","article-title":"Acute Versus Progressive Onset of Diabetes in NOD Mice: Potential Implications for Therapeutic Interventions in Type 1 Diabetes","volume":"64","author":"Mathews","year":"2015","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14669","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-65454-x","article-title":"Molecular profiling of NOD mouse islets reveals a novel regulator of insulitis onset","volume":"14","author":"Mathisen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5768","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-026-35483-9","article-title":"Revisiting type 1 diabetes progression in the non-obese diabetic mouse","volume":"16","author":"Ehall","year":"2026","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-025-06579-0","article-title":"Is the NOD mouse a good model for type 1 diabetes?","volume":"69","author":"Wong","year":"2026","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1433","DOI":"10.1126\/science.2205920","article-title":"Acceleration of diabetes in young NOD mice with a CD4+ islet-specific T cell clone","volume":"249","author":"Haskins","year":"1990","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"873","DOI":"10.1016\/S1074-7613(00)80405-7","article-title":"Genetic control of diabetes progression","volume":"7","author":"Gonzalez","year":"1997","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aad2791","article-title":"Pathogenic CD4 T cells in type 1 diabetes recognize epitopes formed by peptide fusion","volume":"351","author":"Delong","year":"2016","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.2337\/diab.42.1.44","article-title":"Adoptive transfer of diabetes into immunodeficient NOD-scid\/scid mice. Relative contributions of CD4+ and CD8+ T-cells from diabetic versus prediabetic NOD.NON-Thy-1a donors","volume":"42","author":"Christianson","year":"1993","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"525","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-3083.1996.d01-70.x","article-title":"Establishment and characterization of RAG-2 deficient non-obese diabetic mice","volume":"43","author":"Soderstrom","year":"1996","journal-title":"Scand. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1663","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.186.10.1663","article-title":"Spontaneous autoimmune diabetes in monoclonal T cell nonobese diabetic mice","volume":"186","author":"Verdaguer","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-007-0886-7","article-title":"The mechanisms of alloxan- and streptozotocin-induced diabetes","volume":"51","author":"Lenzen","year":"2008","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e78","DOI":"10.1002\/cpz1.78","article-title":"Streptozotocin-Induced Diabetic Models in Mice and Rats","volume":"1","author":"Furman","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr. Protoc."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"923","DOI":"10.2337\/db17-1467","article-title":"Improved Murine MHC-Deficient HLA Transgenic NOD Mouse Models for Type 1 Diabetes Therapy Development","volume":"67","author":"Racine","year":"2018","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3257","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.176.5.3257","article-title":"HLA-A*0201-restricted T cells from humanized NOD mice recognize autoantigens of potential clinical relevance to type 1 diabetes","volume":"176","author":"Takaki","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5766","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1102930","article-title":"Beyond HLA-A*0201: New HLA-transgenic nonobese diabetic mouse models of type 1 diabetes identify the insulin C-peptide as a rich source of CD8+ T cell epitopes","volume":"188","author":"Antal","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10954","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1710415114","article-title":"Type 1 diabetes induction in humanized mice","volume":"114","author":"Tan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1816","DOI":"10.2337\/db18-0202","article-title":"Humanized Mouse Model to Study Type 1 Diabetes","volume":"67","author":"Luce","year":"2018","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Luce, S., Guinoiseau, S., Gadault, A., Letourneur, F., Nitschke, P., Bras, M., Vidaud, M., Charneau, P., Larger, E., and Colli, M.L. (2021). A Humanized Mouse Strain That Develops Spontaneously Immune-Mediated Diabetes. Front. Immunol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.748679"},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Leiter, E.H. (2001). The NOD mouse: A model for insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Curr. Protoc. Immunol., 24.","DOI":"10.1002\/0471142735.im1509s24"},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101171","DOI":"10.1016\/j.xpro.2022.101171","article-title":"A protocol for studying glucose homeostasis and islet function in mice","volume":"3","author":"Wheeler","year":"2022","journal-title":"STAR. Protoc."},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17142","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-96327-2","article-title":"Enhanced CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cell infiltrate within convex hull defined pancreatic islet borders as autoimmune diabetes progresses","volume":"11","author":"Dwyer","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"509","DOI":"10.1038\/s42255-019-0061-8","article-title":"Increased beta-cell proliferation before immune cell invasion prevents progression of type 1 diabetes","volume":"1","author":"Dirice","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Metab."},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1792","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.2300303","article-title":"HLA-DQ8 Supports Development of Insulitis Mediated by Insulin-Reactive Human TCR-Transgenic T Cells in Nonobese Diabetic Mice","volume":"211","author":"Racine","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2023","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(16)30173-8","article-title":"Rheumatoid arthritis","volume":"388","author":"Smolen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1316","DOI":"10.1136\/annrheumdis-2013-204627","article-title":"The global burden of rheumatoid arthritis: Estimates from the global burden of disease 2010 study","volume":"73","author":"Cross","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ann. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"376","DOI":"10.1038\/nature12873","article-title":"Genetics of rheumatoid arthritis contributes to biology and drug discovery","volume":"506","author":"Okada","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1205","DOI":"10.1002\/art.1780301102","article-title":"The shared epitope hypothesis. An approach to understanding the molecular genetics of susceptibility to rheumatoid arthritis","volume":"30","author":"Gregersen","year":"1987","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1645","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2015.3435","article-title":"Association of HLA-DRB1 haplotypes with rheumatoid arthritis severity, mortality, and treatment response","volume":"313","author":"Viatte","year":"2015","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1038\/ng.1076","article-title":"Five amino acids in three HLA proteins explain most of the association between MHC and seropositive rheumatoid arthritis","volume":"44","author":"Raychaudhuri","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Genet."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"262","DOI":"10.1097\/BOR.0000000000000166","article-title":"Update on autoantibodies to modified proteins","volume":"27","author":"Toes","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"508","DOI":"10.1038\/ng.582","article-title":"Genome-wide association study meta-analysis identifies seven new rheumatoid arthritis risk loci","volume":"42","author":"Stahl","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nat. Genet."},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1097\/BOR.0000000000000128","article-title":"Epigenetics in rheumatoid arthritis","volume":"27","author":"Klein","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sokolove, J., Bromberg, R., Deane, K.D., Lahey, L.J., Derber, L.A., Chandra, P.E., Edison, J.D., Gilliland, W.R., Tibshirani, R.J., and Norris, J.M. (2012). Autoantibody epitope spreading in the pre-clinical phase predicts progression to rheumatoid arthritis. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/annotation\/2e462817-ab93-4d78-95a4-1d8b9d172971"},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2205","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra1004965","article-title":"The pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis","volume":"365","author":"McInnes","year":"2011","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"691","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-023-36257-x","article-title":"A subset of antibodies targeting citrullinated proteins confers protection from rheumatoid arthritis","volume":"14","author":"He","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1002\/art.42679","article-title":"Anti-Citrullinated Protein Antibodies with Multiple Specificities Ameliorate Collagen Antibody-Induced Arthritis in a Time-Dependent Manner","volume":"76","author":"Gomez","year":"2024","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5949","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-023-41561-7","article-title":"A subset of type-II collagen-binding antibodies prevents experimental arthritis by inhibiting FCGR3 signaling in neutrophils","volume":"14","author":"Xu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1791","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI60975","article-title":"Induction of osteoclastogenesis and bone loss by human autoantibodies against citrullinated vimentin","volume":"122","author":"Harre","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"928","DOI":"10.1038\/s41590-019-0378-1","article-title":"Defining inflammatory cell states in rheumatoid arthritis joint synovial tissues by integrating single-cell transcriptomics and mass cytometry","volume":"20","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"666","DOI":"10.1038\/283666a0","article-title":"Immunisation against heterologous type II collagen induces arthritis in mice","volume":"283","author":"Courtenay","year":"1980","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1269","DOI":"10.1038\/nprot.2007.173","article-title":"Collagen-induced arthritis","volume":"2","author":"Brand","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nat. Protoc."},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e313","DOI":"10.1002\/cpz1.313","article-title":"Collagen-Induced Arthritis Mouse Model","volume":"1","author":"Rosloniec","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr. Protoc."},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e167671","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI167671","article-title":"Microbiota-dependent indole production stimulates the development of collagen-induced arthritis in mice","volume":"134","author":"Seymour","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"798","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2023.03.018","article-title":"Fusobacterium nucleatum aggravates rheumatoid arthritis through FadA-containing outer membrane vesicles","volume":"31","author":"Hong","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"676","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-021-27948-4","article-title":"TNF antagonist sensitizes synovial fibroblasts to ferroptotic cell death in collagen-induced arthritis mouse models","volume":"13","author":"Wu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-59745-402-5_16","article-title":"Collagen antibody induced arthritis","volume":"136","author":"Nandakumar","year":"2007","journal-title":"Methods Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_174","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.3109\/08916939508995311","article-title":"Collagen-induced arthritis in mice: Synergistic effect of E. coli lipopolysaccharide bypasses epitope specificity in the induction of arthritis with monoclonal antibodies to type II collagen","volume":"22","author":"Terato","year":"1995","journal-title":"Autoimmunity"},{"key":"ref_175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2103","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.148.7.2103","article-title":"Induction of arthritis with monoclonal antibodies to collagen","volume":"148","author":"Terato","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_176","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R544","DOI":"10.1186\/ar1217","article-title":"Collagen type II (CII)-specific antibodies induce arthritis in the absence of T or B cells but the arthritis progression is enhanced by CII-reactive T cells","volume":"6","author":"Nandakumar","year":"2004","journal-title":"Arthritis Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_177","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"306","DOI":"10.1002\/art.1780300310","article-title":"Immunity to cartilage proteoglycans in BALB\/c mice with progressive polyarthritis and ankylosing spondylitis induced by injection of human cartilage proteoglycan","volume":"30","author":"Mikecz","year":"1987","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_178","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1186\/ar383","article-title":"Th1 and Th2 cytokines regulate proteoglycan-specific autoantibody isotypes and arthritis","volume":"4","author":"Kaplan","year":"2002","journal-title":"Arthritis Res."},{"key":"ref_179","first-page":"313","article-title":"Proteoglycan aggrecan-induced arthritis: A murine autoimmune model of rheumatoid arthritis","volume":"102","author":"Glant","year":"2004","journal-title":"Methods Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_180","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1002\/eji.201948112","article-title":"CD4(+) CCR6(+) T cells, but not gammadelta T cells, are important for the IL-23R-dependent progression of antigen-induced inflammatory arthritis in mice","volume":"50","author":"Razawy","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_181","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R194","DOI":"10.1186\/ar2893","article-title":"Interleukin-23 is critical for full-blown expression of a non-autoimmune destructive arthritis and regulates interleukin-17A and RORgammat in gammadelta T cells","volume":"11","author":"Cornelissen","year":"2009","journal-title":"Arthritis Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_182","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R291","DOI":"10.1186\/ar1484","article-title":"The role of regulatory T cells in antigen-induced arthritis: Aggravation of arthritis after depletion and amelioration after transfer of CD4+CD25+ T cells","volume":"7","author":"Frey","year":"2005","journal-title":"Arthritis Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_183","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-59745-402-5_18","article-title":"Murine antigen-induced arthritis","volume":"136","author":"Joosten","year":"2007","journal-title":"Methods Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_184","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1002\/art.1780150402","article-title":"The pathogenesis of chronic inflammation in experimental antigen-induced arthritis. I. The role of antigen on the local immune response","volume":"15","author":"Cooke","year":"1972","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_185","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2857","DOI":"10.1002\/art.38114","article-title":"Periarticular bone loss in antigen-induced arthritis","volume":"65","author":"Engdahl","year":"2013","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_186","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"811","DOI":"10.1016\/S0092-8674(00)81989-3","article-title":"Organ-specific disease provoked by systemic autoimmunity","volume":"87","author":"Kouskoff","year":"1996","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_187","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1016\/S1074-7613(00)80045-X","article-title":"From systemic T cell self-reactivity to organ-specific autoimmune disease via immunoglobulins","volume":"10","author":"Korganow","year":"1999","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_188","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molmed.2003.11.004","article-title":"The K\/BxN mouse: A model of human inflammatory arthritis","volume":"10","author":"Ditzel","year":"2004","journal-title":"Trends Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_189","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-59745-402-5_20","article-title":"The K\/BxN mouse model of inflammatory arthritis: Theory and practice","volume":"136","author":"Monach","year":"2007","journal-title":"Methods Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_190","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Christensen, A.D., Haase, C., Cook, A.D., and Hamilton, J.A. (2016). K\/BxN Serum-Transfer Arthritis as a Model for Human Inflammatory Arthritis. Front. Immunol., 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2016.00213"},{"key":"ref_191","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"454","DOI":"10.1038\/nature02119","article-title":"Altered thymic T-cell selection due to a mutation of the ZAP-70 gene causes autoimmune arthritis in mice","volume":"426","author":"Sakaguchi","year":"2003","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_192","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"949","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20041758","article-title":"A role for fungal beta-glucans and their receptor Dectin-1 in the induction of autoimmune arthritis in genetically susceptible mice","volume":"201","author":"Yoshitomi","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_193","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20062259","article-title":"T cell self-reactivity forms a cytokine milieu for spontaneous development of IL-17+ Th cells that cause autoimmune arthritis","volume":"204","author":"Hirota","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_194","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1135","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20092301","article-title":"Complement drives Th17 cell differentiation and triggers autoimmune arthritis","volume":"207","author":"Hashimoto","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_195","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4025","DOI":"10.1002\/j.1460-2075.1991.tb04978.x","article-title":"Transgenic mice expressing human tumour necrosis factor: A predictive genetic model of arthritis","volume":"10","author":"Keffer","year":"1991","journal-title":"EMBO J."},{"key":"ref_196","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1007\/s00281-003-0125-3","article-title":"The TNF-alpha transgenic mouse model of inflammatory arthritis","volume":"25","author":"Li","year":"2003","journal-title":"Springer Semin. Immunopathol."},{"key":"ref_197","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11742","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0610812104","article-title":"TNF-induced structural joint damage is mediated by IL-1","volume":"104","author":"Zwerina","year":"2007","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_198","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"418","DOI":"10.1242\/bio.016279","article-title":"Establishment and evaluation of a transgenic mouse model of arthritis induced by overexpressing human tumor necrosis factor alpha","volume":"5","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biol. Open"},{"key":"ref_199","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"972","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/41.9.972","article-title":"Blocking the effects of IL-1 in rheumatoid arthritis protects bone and cartilage","volume":"41","author":"Abramson","year":"2002","journal-title":"Rheumatology"},{"key":"ref_200","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5986","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1035999100","article-title":"IL-17 production from activated T cells is required for the spontaneous development of destructive arthritis in mice deficient in IL-1 receptor antagonist","volume":"100","author":"Nakae","year":"2003","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_201","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1603","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI20742","article-title":"TNF-alpha is crucial for the development of autoimmune arthritis in IL-1 receptor antagonist-deficient mice","volume":"114","author":"Horai","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_202","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7464","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms8464","article-title":"IL-1 receptor antagonist-deficient mice develop autoimmune arthritis due to intrinsic activation of IL-17-producing CCR2(+)Vgamma6(+)gammadelta T cells","volume":"6","author":"Akitsu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_203","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6151","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.91.13.6151","article-title":"Expression of HLA-DR4 and human CD4 transgenes in mice determines the variable region beta-chain T-cell repertoire and mediates an HLA-DR-restricted immune response","volume":"91","author":"Fugger","year":"1994","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_204","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7574","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.95.13.7574","article-title":"Definition of MHC and T cell receptor contacts in the HLA-DR4restricted immunodominant epitope in type II collagen and characterization of collagen-induced arthritis in HLA-DR4 and human CD4 transgenic mice","volume":"95","author":"Andersson","year":"1998","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_205","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clim.2014.02.002","article-title":"Cellular and humoral immunity in arthritis are profoundly influenced by the interaction between cigarette smoke effects and host HLA-DR and DQ genes","volume":"152","author":"Vassallo","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_206","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1002\/art.22213","article-title":"New humanized HLA-DR4-transgenic mice that mimic the sex bias of rheumatoid arthritis","volume":"56","author":"Taneja","year":"2007","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_207","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaut.2009.12.007","article-title":"Mechanism by which HLA-DR4 regulates sex-bias of arthritis in humanized mice","volume":"35","author":"Behrens","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Autoimmun."},{"key":"ref_208","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.183.1.27","article-title":"HLA-DQ8 transgenic mice are highly susceptible to collagen-induced arthritis: A novel model for human polyarthritis","volume":"183","author":"Nabozny","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_209","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2227","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI119760","article-title":"HLA-DQB1 polymorphism determines incidence, onset, and severity of collagen-induced arthritis in transgenic mice. Implications in human rheumatoid arthritis","volume":"100","author":"Bradley","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_210","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5867","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.168.11.5867","article-title":"CD4 and CD8 T cells in susceptibility\/protection to collagen-induced arthritis in HLA-DQ8-transgenic mice: Implications for rheumatoid arthritis","volume":"168","author":"Taneja","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_211","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2869","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.181.4.2869","article-title":"Delineating the role of the HLA-DR4 \u201cshared epitope\u201d in susceptibility versus resistance to develop arthritis","volume":"181","author":"Taneja","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_212","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108813","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clim.2021.108813","article-title":"A novel humanized model of rheumatoid arthritis associated lung disease","volume":"230","author":"Lin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_213","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9960","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.132254199","article-title":"Predominant selection of T cells specific for the glycosylated collagen type II epitope (263\u2013270) in humanized transgenic mice and in rheumatoid arthritis","volume":"99","author":"Backlund","year":"2002","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_214","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1911","DOI":"10.1002\/art.27460","article-title":"Breaking T cell tolerance against self type II collagen in HLA-DR4-transgenic mice and development of autoimmune arthritis","volume":"62","author":"Batsalova","year":"2010","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_215","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaut.2017.12.002","article-title":"Immune responses to peptides containing homocitrulline or citrulline in the DR4-transgenic mouse model of rheumatoid arthritis","volume":"89","author":"Lac","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Autoimmun."},{"key":"ref_216","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2423","DOI":"10.1002\/art.22013","article-title":"Increased arthritis susceptibility in cartilage proteoglycan-specific T cell receptor-transgenic mice","volume":"54","author":"Berlo","year":"2006","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_217","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"490","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.168.1.490","article-title":"Detection of early changes in autoimmune T cell phenotype and function following intravenous administration of type II collagen in a TCR-transgenic model","volume":"168","author":"Brand","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_218","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R7","DOI":"10.1186\/ar4433","article-title":"Characterization of T cell phenotype and function in a double transgenic (collagen-specific TCR\/HLA-DR1) humanized model of arthritis","volume":"16","author":"Tang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Arthritis Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_219","first-page":"10","article-title":"Synovial tissue implants from patients with rheumatoid arthritis cause cartilage destruction in knee joints of SCID.bg mice","volume":"21","author":"Sack","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_220","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1664","DOI":"10.1002\/art.1780371116","article-title":"A new model for rheumatoid arthritis generated by engraftment of rheumatoid synovial tissue and normal human cartilage into SCID mice","volume":"37","author":"Geiler","year":"1994","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_221","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1016\/S0002-9440(10)64379-9","article-title":"Inflammation, immune reactivity, and angiogenesis in a severe combined immunodeficiency model of rheumatoid arthritis","volume":"160","author":"Davis","year":"2002","journal-title":"Am. J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_222","first-page":"1877","article-title":"Effects of tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin 1beta, and activated peripheral blood mononuclear cells on the expression of adhesion molecules and recruitment of leukocytes in rheumatoid synovial xenografts in SCID mice","volume":"26","author":"Proudman","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_223","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"721","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/kep099","article-title":"Inhibitory effect of CD147\/HAb18 monoclonal antibody on cartilage erosion and synovitis in the SCID mouse model for rheumatoid arthritis","volume":"48","author":"Jia","year":"2009","journal-title":"Rheumatology"},{"key":"ref_224","first-page":"1607","article-title":"Synovial fibroblasts of patients with rheumatoid arthritis attach to and invade normal human cartilage when engrafted into SCID mice","volume":"149","author":"Kriegsmann","year":"1996","journal-title":"Am. J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_225","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1414","DOI":"10.1038\/nm.2050","article-title":"Synovial fibroblasts spread rheumatoid arthritis to unaffected joints","volume":"15","author":"Lefevre","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_226","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1843","DOI":"10.1002\/eji.1830200832","article-title":"Autoantibody production by severe combined immunodeficient mice reconstituted with synovial cells from rheumatoid arthritis patients","volume":"20","author":"Tighe","year":"1990","journal-title":"Eur. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_227","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2249.1996.979670.x","article-title":"Successful induction of severe destructive arthritis by the transfer of in vitro-activated synovial fluid T cells from patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) in severe combined immunodeficient (SCID) mice","volume":"104","author":"Sakata","year":"1996","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_228","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.1186\/1479-5876-10-190","article-title":"Development of a new humanized mouse model to study acute inflammatory arthritis","volume":"10","author":"Misharin","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_229","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kuwana, Y., Takei, M., Yajima, M., Imadome, K., Inomata, H., Shiozaki, M., Ikumi, N., Nozaki, T., Shiraiwa, H., and Kitamura, N. (2011). Epstein-Barr virus induces erosive arthritis in humanized mice. PLoS ONE, 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0026630"},{"key":"ref_230","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"dmm052294","DOI":"10.1242\/dmm.052294","article-title":"Validation of a model of rheumatoid arthritis using mice reconstituted with patient peripheral blood mononuclear cells","volume":"18","author":"Wess","year":"2025","journal-title":"Dis. Model. Mech."},{"key":"ref_231","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1626","DOI":"10.21769\/BioProtoc.1626","article-title":"Collagen-Induced Arthritis: A model for Murine Autoimmune Arthritis","volume":"5","author":"Pietrosimone","year":"2015","journal-title":"Bio Protoc."},{"key":"ref_232","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"kyac010","DOI":"10.1093\/discim\/kyac010","article-title":"Bench to Bedside: Modelling Inflammatory Arthritis","volume":"2","author":"Chidomere","year":"2023","journal-title":"Discov. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_233","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1689","DOI":"10.1016\/S0002-9440(10)63016-7","article-title":"TRANCE\/RANKL knockout mice are protected from bone erosion in a serum transfer model of arthritis","volume":"159","author":"Pettit","year":"2001","journal-title":"Am. J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_234","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"714","DOI":"10.1136\/annrheumdis-2020-219247","article-title":"\u2018SMASH\u2019 recommendations for standardised microscopic arthritis scoring of histological sections from inflammatory arthritis animal models","volume":"80","author":"Hayer","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ann. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_235","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schinnerling, K., Rosas, C., Soto, L., Thomas, R., and Aguillon, J.C. (2019). Humanized Mouse Models of Rheumatoid Arthritis for Studies on Immunopathogenesis and Preclinical Testing of Cell-Based Therapies. Front. Immunol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2019.00203"},{"key":"ref_236","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Humby, F., Bombardieri, M., Manzo, A., Kelly, S., Blades, M.C., Kirkham, B., Spencer, J., and Pitzalis, C. (2009). Ectopic lymphoid structures support ongoing production of class-switched autoantibodies in rheumatoid synovium. PLoS Med., 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.0060001"},{"key":"ref_237","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"485","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2009.09.033","article-title":"Induction of intestinal Th17 cells by segmented filamentous bacteria","volume":"139","author":"Ivanov","year":"2009","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_238","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1038\/nature12726","article-title":"Metabolites produced by commensal bacteria promote peripheral regulatory T-cell generation","volume":"504","author":"Arpaia","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_239","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5224","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.66.11.5224-5231.1998","article-title":"Resident enteric bacteria are necessary for development of spontaneous colitis and immune system activation in interleukin-10-deficient mice","volume":"66","author":"Sellon","year":"1998","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_240","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"538","DOI":"10.1038\/nature10554","article-title":"Commensal microbiota and myelin autoantigen cooperate to trigger autoimmune demyelination","volume":"479","author":"Berer","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_241","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10719","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1711233114","article-title":"Gut microbiota from multiple sclerosis patients enables spontaneous autoimmune encephalomyelitis in mice","volume":"114","author":"Berer","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_242","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1109","DOI":"10.1038\/nature07336","article-title":"Innate immunity and intestinal microbiota in the development of Type 1 diabetes","volume":"455","author":"Wen","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_243","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1084","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1233521","article-title":"Sex differences in the gut microbiome drive hormone-dependent regulation of autoimmunity","volume":"339","author":"Markle","year":"2013","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_244","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"815","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2010.06.001","article-title":"Gut-residing segmented filamentous bacteria drive autoimmune arthritis via T helper 17 cells","volume":"32","author":"Wu","year":"2010","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_245","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1038\/nature18285","article-title":"Accounting for reciprocal host-microbiome interactions in experimental science","volume":"534","author":"Stappenbeck","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_246","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E10539","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1810819115","article-title":"Intestinal barrier dysfunction orchestrates the onset of inflammatory host-microbiome cross-talk in a human gut inflammation-on-a-chip","volume":"115","author":"Shin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_247","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Philippon, E.M.L., van Rooijen, L.J.E., Khodadust, F., van Hamburg, J.P., van der Laken, C.J., and Tas, S.W. (2023). A novel 3D spheroid model of rheumatoid arthritis synovial tissue incorporating fibroblasts, endothelial cells, and macrophages. Front. Immunol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1188835"},{"key":"ref_248","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ehx, G., Somja, J., Warnatz, H.J., Ritacco, C., Hannon, M., Delens, L., Fransolet, G., Delvenne, P., Muller, J., and Beguin, Y. (2018). Xenogeneic Graft-Versus-Host Disease in Humanized NSG and NSG-HLA-A2\/HHD Mice. Front. Immunol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2018.01943"},{"key":"ref_249","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101417","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molmet.2021.101417","article-title":"Modeling human T1D-associated autoimmune processes","volume":"56","author":"Madley","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_250","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102612","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaut.2021.102612","article-title":"Role of the thymus in spontaneous development of a multi-organ autoimmune disease in human immune system mice","volume":"119","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Autoimmun."},{"key":"ref_251","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-immunol-082223-041615","article-title":"T Cell Development and Responses in Human Immune System Mice","volume":"43","author":"Li","year":"2025","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_252","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"786","DOI":"10.1038\/nri3311","article-title":"Humanized mice for immune system investigation: Progress, promise and challenges","volume":"12","author":"Shultz","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_253","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2390","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1019682108","article-title":"Human IL-3\/GM-CSF knock-in mice support human alveolar macrophage development and human immune responses in the lung","volume":"108","author":"Willinger","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_254","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"364","DOI":"10.1038\/nbt.2858","article-title":"Development and function of human innate immune cells in a humanized mouse model","volume":"32","author":"Rongvaux","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_255","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2473","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2013.6285","article-title":"Seroconversion to multiple islet autoantibodies and risk of progression to diabetes in children","volume":"309","author":"Ziegler","year":"2013","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_256","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2741","DOI":"10.1002\/art.11223","article-title":"Antibodies against cyclic citrullinated peptide and IgA rheumatoid factor predict the development of rheumatoid arthritis","volume":"48","author":"Berglin","year":"2003","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_257","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"380","DOI":"10.1002\/art.20018","article-title":"Specific autoantibodies precede the symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis: A study of serial measurements in blood donors","volume":"50","author":"Nielen","year":"2004","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_258","first-page":"E7","article-title":"Contributions of microbiome and mechanical deformation to intestinal bacterial overgrowth and inflammation in a human gut-on-a-chip","volume":"113","author":"Kim","year":"2016","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_259","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"824","DOI":"10.1038\/s41587-022-01558-x","article-title":"In vivo development of immune tissue in human intestinal organoids transplanted into humanized mice","volume":"41","author":"Bouffi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_260","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10713","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1711235114","article-title":"Gut bacteria from multiple sclerosis patients modulate human T cells and exacerbate symptoms in mouse models","volume":"114","author":"Cekanaviciute","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_261","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.1002\/eji.202048655","article-title":"Attenuated immune control of Epstein-Barr virus in humanized mice is associated with the multiple sclerosis risk factor HLA-DR15","volume":"51","author":"Zdimerova","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_262","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Enz, L.S., Winkler, A., Wrzos, C., Dasen, B., Nessler, S., Stadelmann, C., and Schaeren-Wiemers, N. (2023). An Animal Model for Chronic Meningeal Inflammation and Inflammatory Demyelination of the Cerebral Cortex. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms241813893"},{"key":"ref_263","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107894","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2020.107894","article-title":"Modeling Type 1 Diabetes In Vitro Using Human Pluripotent Stem Cells","volume":"32","author":"Leite","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_264","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-019-1263-7","article-title":"Distinct fibroblast subsets drive inflammation and damage in arthritis","volume":"570","author":"Croft","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_265","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eabq8476","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.abq8476","article-title":"Oral mucosal breaks trigger anti-citrullinated bacterial and human protein antibody responses in rheumatoid arthritis","volume":"15","author":"Brewer","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_266","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2249.2009.03933.x","article-title":"Human peripheral blood leucocyte non-obese diabetic-severe combined immunodeficiency interleukin-2 receptor gamma chain gene mouse model of xenogeneic graft-versus-host-like disease and the role of host major histocompatibility complex","volume":"157","author":"King","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_267","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"268","DOI":"10.1182\/bloodadvances.2018023887","article-title":"Human hematopoietic stem cell maintenance and myeloid cell development in next-generation humanized mouse models","volume":"3","author":"Sippel","year":"2019","journal-title":"Blood Adv."},{"key":"ref_268","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"662","DOI":"10.1016\/j.it.2025.07.011","article-title":"Advances in human myeloid-engrafting NSG-SGM3 and MISTRG mice","volume":"46","author":"Stocks","year":"2025","journal-title":"Trends Immunol."},{"key":"ref_269","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1038\/s41684-023-01196-z","article-title":"Generation of the NeoThy mouse model for human immune system studies","volume":"52","author":"Huang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Lab. Anim."},{"key":"ref_270","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2053","DOI":"10.1158\/2767-9764.CRC-25-0357","article-title":"Autologous Thymic Organoids Support Functional T-cell Education and Enhance Antitumor Immunity in Humanized Mice with Melanoma Xenografts","volume":"5","author":"Morton","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cancer Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_271","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"402","DOI":"10.1538\/expanim.23-0025","article-title":"Establishment of a human microbiome- and immune system-reconstituted dual-humanized mouse model","volume":"72","author":"Ka","year":"2023","journal-title":"Exp. Anim."},{"key":"ref_272","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e11945","DOI":"10.1002\/advs.202511945","article-title":"Synovium-On-A-Chip: Simulating the Microenvironment of the Rheumatoid Arthritis Synovium via Multicell Interactions to Target Fibroblast-Like Synoviocytes","volume":"12","author":"Diao","year":"2025","journal-title":"Adv. Sci."},{"key":"ref_273","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-024-07791-5","article-title":"Human organoids with an autologous tissue-resident immune compartment","volume":"633","author":"Recaldin","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_274","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30745","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-15935-4","article-title":"A call to action to address critical flaws and bias in laboratory animal experiments and preclinical research","volume":"15","author":"Townsend","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_275","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Percie du Sert, N., Hurst, V., Ahluwalia, A., Alam, S., Avey, M.T., Baker, M., Browne, W.J., Clark, A., Cuthill, I.C., and Dirnagl, U. (2020). The ARRIVE guidelines 2.0: Updated guidelines for reporting animal research. PLoS Biol., 18.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pbio.3000410"}],"container-title":["Biology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-7737\/15\/14\/1125\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,10]],"date-time":"2026-07-10T15:19:56Z","timestamp":1783696796000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-7737\/15\/14\/1125"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,10]]},"references-count":275,"journal-issue":{"issue":"14","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7]]}},"alternative-id":["biology15141125"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/biology15141125","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-7737"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-7737","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,10]]}}}