{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,23]],"date-time":"2026-10-23T20:56:18Z","timestamp":1792788978095,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":101,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,14]],"date-time":"2026-09-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1789344000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"FCT"},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100019243","name":"MARE","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["UIDB\/04292\/2025"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/04292\/2025"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100019243","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"},{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/03cvzf910","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"name":"Associate Laboratory ARNET","award":["LA\/P\/0069\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LA\/P\/0069\/2020"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biology"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Unlike on land, the oceans present few biogeographic barriers to hinder migration and mate choice. One might therefore expect random mating across entire species ranges, yet this is rarely observed. Even the largest and most mobile marine species like whales often maintain basin-specific lineages. Here, we test whether sperm whales form a single effectively panmictic gene pool. We use the term effective panmixia to refer to the absence of detectable genome-wide allele-frequency differentiation, as opposed to equal mating probabilities among all individuals. We compiled data of 45 whole genomes (of which 41 newly sequenced) to perform phylogenetic and demographic analyses. The analyses uncover a remarkable lack of global population structure: sperm whales from the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans form a single, genetically homogeneous population, suggesting global effective panmixia, with no significant differences in allele frequency. The only exception is the population of the Mediterranean Sea, which forms a distinct cluster, indicating past or ongoing geographic isolation and genetic drift owing to a reduced effective population size. The lack of general population structure elsewhere across the species range highlights the extraordinary global connectivity of this species. This global connectivity may buffer sperm whale populations from loss of variation through genetic drift, whereas the differentiated Mediterranean population remains a regional conservation priority.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/biology15181619","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,14]],"date-time":"2026-09-14T14:15:04Z","timestamp":1789395304000},"page":"1619","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Genome Analyses Support Global Effective Panmixia in Sperm Whales"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4581-0165","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Muhammad Basil","family":"Ali","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Senckenberg Biodiversity and Climate Research Centre (BiK-F), Georg-Voigt-Strasse 14\u201316, 60325 Frankfurt am Main, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2131-9048","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Menno J.","family":"de Jong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Senckenberg Biodiversity and Climate Research Centre (BiK-F), Georg-Voigt-Strasse 14\u201316, 60325 Frankfurt am Main, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ulfur","family":"Arnason","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurosurgery, Skane University Hospital in Lund, 222 42 Lund, Sweden"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9170-1395","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Biagio","family":"Violi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Menkab: il respiro del mare Association, Lungomare Matteotti 1, 17100 Savona, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5671-5804","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"C\u00e9line","family":"Tardy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"WWF France, 6 rue des Fabres, 13001 Marseille, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3752-2745","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Filipe","family":"Alves","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"MARE\u2014Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre, ARNET\u2014Aquatic Research Network, Ag\u00eancia Regional para o Desenvolvimento da Investiga\u00e7\u00e3o, Tecnologia e Inova\u00e7\u00e3o (ARDITI), Edif\u00edcio Madeira Tecnopolo, Piso 2, Caminho da Penteada, 9020-105 Funchal, Portugal"},{"name":"Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Madeira, Campus Universit\u00e1rio da Penteada, 9020-105 Funchal, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5954-0322","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marina","family":"Arregui","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Veterinary Histology and Pathology, Atlantic Center for Cetacean Research (CAIC), Institute of Animal Health and Food Safety (IUSA), Veterinary School, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC), Trasmonta\u00f1a s\/n, 35413 Arucas, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rui","family":"Prieto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Marine Sciences\u2014Okeanos, Institute of Marine Research\u2014IMAR, University of the Azores, Rua Professor Doutor Frederico Machado 4, 9901-862 Horta, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4507-2943","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pablo","family":"Covelo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Coordinadora para o Estudo dos Mam\u00edferos Mari\u00f1os (CEMMA), Cami\u00f1o do Ce\u00e1n 2, 36350 Nigr\u00e1n, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Daniel","family":"Engelhaupt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"HDR Inc., 701 Independence Circle, Virginia Beach, VA 23455, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"A. 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