{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,13]],"date-time":"2026-10-13T12:03:31Z","timestamp":1791893011192,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,4]],"date-time":"2020-02-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1580774400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biomolecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The consumption of functional foods and nutraceuticals is gaining more importance in modern society. The exploration of alternative sources and the utilization of by-products coming from the food industry are gaining more importance. The present study aimed to characterize the nutritional value and potential use of sea bass by-products as a source of high-added-value compounds for the development of supplements. The chemical composition (moisture, protein, fat, and ash contents) and profiles of amino acids (high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to a scanning fluorescence detector), fatty acids (gas chromatography coupled to a flame ionization detector), and minerals (inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy) were determined for sea bass fillet and its by-products (skin, guts, gills, liver, head, and fish bones). The chemical composition assays revealed that by-products were rich sources of proteins (skin; 25.27 g\/100 g), fat (guts and liver; 53.12 and 37.25 g\/100 g, respectively), and minerals (gills, head, and fish bones; 5.81, 10.11, and 7.51 g\/100 g, respectively). Regarding the amino-acid profile, the skin and liver were the main sources of essential amino acids with an essential amino-acid index of 208.22 and 208.07, respectively. In the case of the fatty-acid profile, all by-products displayed high amounts of unsaturated fatty acids, particularly monounsaturated (from 43.46 to 49.33 g\/100 g fatty acids) and omega-3 fatty acids (in the range 10.85\u201314.10 g\/100 g fatty acids). Finally, the evaluation of mineral profile indicated high contents of calcium and phosphorus in gills (1382.62 and 742.60 mg\/100 g, respectively), head (2507.15 and 1277.01 mg\/100 g, respectively), and fish bone (2093.26 and 1166.36 mg\/100 g, respectively). Therefore, the main sources of monounsaturated, unsaturated, and long-chain omega-3 fatty acids were guts and liver. The most relevant source of minerals, particularly calcium, phosphorus, and manganese, were head, fish bones, and gills. The most promising source of proteins and amino acids was the skin of sea bass.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/biom10020232","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,6]],"date-time":"2020-02-06T02:59:18Z","timestamp":1580957958000},"page":"232","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":64,"title":["Nutritional Characterization of Sea Bass Processing By-Products"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"Paulo E. S.","family":"Munekata","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro Tecnol\u00f3xico da Carne de Galicia, r\u00faa Galicia n\u00b0 4, Parque Tecnol\u00f3xico de Galicia, San Cibrao das Vi\u00f1as, 32900 Ourense, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9682-4594","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mirian","family":"Pateiro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro Tecnol\u00f3xico da Carne de Galicia, r\u00faa Galicia n\u00b0 4, Parque Tecnol\u00f3xico de Galicia, San Cibrao das Vi\u00f1as, 32900 Ourense, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2764-504X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rub\u00e9n","family":"Dom\u00ednguez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro Tecnol\u00f3xico da Carne de Galicia, r\u00faa Galicia n\u00b0 4, Parque Tecnol\u00f3xico de Galicia, San Cibrao das Vi\u00f1as, 32900 Ourense, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9122-2933","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jianjun","family":"Zhou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nutrition and Food Science Area, Preventive Medicine and Public Health, Food Science, Toxicology and Forensic Medicine Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universitat de Val\u00e8ncia, Avda. Vicent Andr\u00e9s Estell\u00e9s, s\/n, 46100 Burjassot, Val\u00e8ncia, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5630-3989","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francisco J.","family":"Barba","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nutrition and Food Science Area, Preventive Medicine and Public Health, Food Science, Toxicology and Forensic Medicine Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universitat de Val\u00e8ncia, Avda. Vicent Andr\u00e9s Estell\u00e9s, s\/n, 46100 Burjassot, Val\u00e8ncia, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7725-9294","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jose M.","family":"Lorenzo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro Tecnol\u00f3xico da Carne de Galicia, r\u00faa Galicia n\u00b0 4, Parque Tecnol\u00f3xico de Galicia, San Cibrao das Vi\u00f1as, 32900 Ourense, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1111\/bcp.12935","article-title":"Defining \u2018nutraceuticals\u2019: Neither nutritious nor pharmaceutical","volume":"83","author":"Aronson","year":"2017","journal-title":"Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tifs.2012.11.004","article-title":"Functional food product development - Opportunities and challenges for food manufacturers","volume":"30","author":"Khan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Trends Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"456","DOI":"10.1016\/j.appet.2008.05.060","article-title":"Functional food. Product development, marketing and consumer acceptance\u2014A review","volume":"51","author":"Lugasi","year":"2008","journal-title":"Appetite"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lfs.2018.04.049","article-title":"Omega-3 and omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids: Dietary sources, metabolism, and significance - A review","volume":"203","author":"Saini","year":"2018","journal-title":"Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2259","DOI":"10.3390\/md11072259","article-title":"Alternative sources of n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in marine microalgae","volume":"11","author":"Martins","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mar. Drugs"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.2009.05263.x","article-title":"Enrichment of foods with omega-3 fatty acids: A multidisciplinary challenge","volume":"1190","author":"Jacobsen","year":"2010","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1007\/s11274-016-2060-1","article-title":"Updates on industrial production of amino acids using Corynebacterium glutamicum","volume":"32","author":"Wendisch","year":"2016","journal-title":"World J. Microbiol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.idairyj.2015.09.002","article-title":"Effect of calcium enrichment of Cheddar cheese on its structure, in vitro digestion and lipid bioaccessibility","volume":"53","author":"Lussier","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. Dairy J."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodres.2016.08.012","article-title":"Healthy Spanish salchich\u00f3n enriched with encapsulated n \u2212 3 long chain fatty acids in konjac glucomannan matrix","volume":"89","author":"Lorenzo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Food Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"462","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lwt.2017.03.025","article-title":"Fortification of yogurt with nano and micro sized calcium, iron and zinc, effect on the physicochemical and rheological properties","volume":"80","year":"2017","journal-title":"LWT Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"985","DOI":"10.12691\/jfnr-2-12-20","article-title":"Evaluation of amino acid changes and crumb hardness of enriched bread with tench (Tinca tinca L., 1758) flesh in Turkey","volume":"2","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Food Nutr. Res."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhep.2014.08.036","article-title":"Effects of n-3 fish oil on metabolic and histological parameters in NASH: A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial","volume":"62","author":"Argo","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"554","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2006.08.042","article-title":"The sustainability of functional foods","volume":"64","author":"Sibbel","year":"2007","journal-title":"Soc. Sci. Med."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1647","DOI":"10.1080\/10408398.2013.794327","article-title":"Utilization of food processing by-products as dietary, functional, and novel fiber: A review","volume":"56","author":"Sharma","year":"2016","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"278","DOI":"10.1007\/s13197-011-0290-7","article-title":"Utilization of byproducts and waste materials from meat, poultry and fish processing industries: A review","volume":"49","author":"Jayathilakan","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Al Khawli, F., Pateiro, M., Dom\u00ednguez, R., Lorenzo, J.M., Gull\u00f3n, P., Kousoulaki, K., Ferrer, E., Berrada, H., and Barba, F.J. (2019). Innovative green technologies of intensification for valorization of seafood and their by-products. Mar. Drugs, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/md17120689"},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"89","article-title":"Antioxidant and antimicrobial peptide fractions from squid and tuna skin gelatin","volume":"661","author":"Montero","year":"2010","journal-title":"Transw. Res. Netw."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4053","DOI":"10.2174\/1381612825666191112141320","article-title":"Dietary fish oil concentrates associated health benefits: A recent development of cardiovascular risk reduction","volume":"25","author":"Behera","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr. Pharm. Des."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e66","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1439-0396.2009.00979.x","article-title":"Fish bones\u2014A highly available calcium source for growing pigs","volume":"94","author":"Malde","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Anim. Physiol. Anim. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"(2019, December 15). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Cultured Aquatic Species Information Programme\u2014Dicentrarchus labrax (Linnaeus, 1758). Available online: http:\/\/www.fao.org\/fishery\/culturedspecies\/Dicentrarchus_labrax\/en."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"European Market Observatory for Fisheries and Aquaculture Products (2019). Case Study in the EU Seabass, European Commission."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"ISO 1442 (1997). Meat and Meat Products\u2014Determination of Moisture Content (Reference Method), International Organization for Standarization. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"ISO 937 (1978). Meat and Meat Products\u2014Determination of Nitrogen Content (Reference Method), International Organization for Standarization. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"ISO 936 (1998). Meat and Meat Products\u2014Determination of Total Ash, International Organization for Standarization. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"AOCS Official Procedure Am5-04 (2005). Rapid Determination of Oil\/Fat Utilizing High Temperature Solvent Extraction, American Oil Chemists Society."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfca.2015.04.007","article-title":"The effect of cooking methods on nutritional value of foal meat","volume":"43","author":"Borrajo","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Food Compos. Anal."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"World Health Organization, Food and Agriculture Organization, and United Nations University (2002). Protein and Amino Acid Requirements in Human Nutrition, World Health Organization."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"911","DOI":"10.1139\/y59-099","article-title":"A rapid method of total lipid extraction and purification","volume":"37","author":"Bligh","year":"1959","journal-title":"Can. J. Biochem. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"1","article-title":"Use of tiger nut (Cyperus esculentus L.) oil emulsion as animal fat replacement in beef burgers","volume":"9","author":"Barros","year":"2020","journal-title":"Foods"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1713","DOI":"10.1017\/S1751731115000671","article-title":"Effect of slaughter age on foal carcass traits and meat quality","volume":"9","author":"Crecente","year":"2015","journal-title":"Animal"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"763","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodcont.2014.10.019","article-title":"Physicochemical and microbial changes during the manufacturing process of dry-cured lac\u00f3n salted with potassium, calcium and magnesium chloride as a partial replacement for sodium chloride","volume":"50","author":"Lorenzo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Food Control."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"316","DOI":"10.1007\/s00217-005-0040-z","article-title":"Amino acid and fatty acid composition of wild sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax): A seasonal differentiation","volume":"222","author":"Polat","year":"2006","journal-title":"Eur. Food Res. Technol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2003.09.026","article-title":"Prediction of chemical composition and origin identification of european sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax L.) by near infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS)","volume":"86","author":"Xiccato","year":"2004","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"601","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2109.1998.00251.x","article-title":"Influence of dietary fat level and increased adiposity on growth and fat deposition in rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum)","volume":"29","author":"Jobling","year":"1998","journal-title":"Aquac. Res."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2010.03.014","article-title":"Effects of dietary protein and lipid levels in practical diets on growth performance and body composition of blunt snout bream (Megalobrama amblycephala) fingerlings","volume":"303","author":"Li","year":"2010","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-7345.2010.00366.x","article-title":"Effects of dietary protein and lipid levels on growth and body composition of subadult olive flounder, Paralichthys olivaceus, at a suboptimal water temperature","volume":"41","author":"Kim","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. World Aquac. Soc."},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"175","article-title":"Comparison of food, amino acid and fatty acid compositions of wild and cultivated Sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax L., 1758)","volume":"15","author":"Baki","year":"2015","journal-title":"Turkish J. Fish. Aquat. Sci."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1000","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2010.05.051","article-title":"Effect of local processing methods (boiling, frying and roasting) on the amino acid composition of four marine fishes commonly consumed in Nigeria","volume":"123","author":"Oluwaniyi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"42","article-title":"Amino acid and fatty acid composition of the muscle tissue of yellowfin tuna (Thunnus Albacares) and bigeye tuna (Thunnus Obesus)","volume":"1","author":"Peng","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Food Nutr. Res."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2008.07.007","article-title":"Amino acid composition of three species of Nigerian fish: Clarias anguillaris, Oreochromis niloticus and Cynoglossus senegalensis","volume":"113","author":"Adeyeye","year":"2009","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"400","DOI":"10.1080\/10498850.2013.865282","article-title":"Fish protein isolates recovered from silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) by-products using alkaline pH solubilization and precipitation","volume":"25","author":"Zhong","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Aquat. Food Prod. Technol."},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"1","article-title":"A study on the amino acid profiles of five fresh water fishes commonly consumed in Tanzania","volume":"42","author":"Babangida","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Zool. Biosci. Res."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"647","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2008.02.058","article-title":"Influences of hot air drying and microwave drying on nutritional and odorous properties of grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idellus) fillets","volume":"110","author":"Wu","year":"2008","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"European Parliament (2006). Regulation (EU) No 1924\/2006. Regulation (EC) No 1924\/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 20 December 2006 on nutrition and health claims made on foods. Off. J. Eur. Union L, 404, 9\u201325."},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"522","article-title":"Total lipid content, fatty acid and mineral compositions of muscles and liver in wild and farmed sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax)","volume":"4","author":"Bhouri","year":"2010","journal-title":"African J. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"885","DOI":"10.1002\/ejlt.201300381","article-title":"Fatty acid composition, lipid oxidation, and fishy odour development in seabass (Lates calcarifer) skin during iced storage","volume":"116","author":"Benjakul","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cbpb.2006.08.012","article-title":"Partial replacement of dietary fish oil with blends of vegetable oils (rapeseed, linseed and palm oils) in diets for European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax L.) over a long term growth study: Effects on muscle and liver fatty acid composition and effectiv","volume":"145","author":"Mourente","year":"2006","journal-title":"Comp. Biochem. Physiol. - B Biochem. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"386","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2016.11.005","article-title":"Effect of fishmeal and fish oil replacement by vegetable meals and oils on gut health of European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax)","volume":"468","author":"Torrecillas","year":"2017","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1177\/1082013211414785","article-title":"Seasonal changes in composition, fatty acid, cholesterol and mineral content of six highly commercial fish species of Greece","volume":"18","author":"Zotos","year":"2012","journal-title":"Food Sci. Technol. Int."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"721","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2006.06.004","article-title":"Proximate composition and mineral contents in aqua cultured sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax), sea bream (Sparus aurata) analyzed by ICP-MS","volume":"102","author":"Erkan","year":"2007","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1439-0426.2008.01097.x","article-title":"Mineral composition in fillets of sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) and sea bream (Sparus aurata): A comparison of cultured and wild fish","volume":"24","author":"Yildiz","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Appl. Ichthyol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1016\/S0308-8146(02)00122-X","article-title":"Differentiation of cultured and wild sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax): Total lipid content, fatty acid and trace mineral composition","volume":"79","author":"Alasalvar","year":"2002","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1043","DOI":"10.1007\/s10646-009-0368-4","article-title":"Assessing pollutant exposure in cultured and wild sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) from the Iberian Peninsula","volume":"18","author":"Fernandes","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ecotoxicology"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1541-4337.2011.00155.x","article-title":"The tuna fishing industry: A new outlook on fish protein hydrolysates","volume":"10","author":"Herpandi","year":"2011","journal-title":"Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1333","DOI":"10.1515\/chem-2015-0146","article-title":"Production of calcium preparations by technology of saltwater fish by product processing","volume":"13","author":"Bubel","year":"2015","journal-title":"Open Chem."}],"container-title":["Biomolecules"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2218-273X\/10\/2\/232\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T08:54:29Z","timestamp":1760172869000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2218-273X\/10\/2\/232"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,4]]},"references-count":55,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,2]]}},"alternative-id":["biom10020232"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/biom10020232","relation":{},"ISSN":["2218-273X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2218-273X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,4]]}}}