{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,27]],"date-time":"2026-10-27T05:17:01Z","timestamp":1793078221185,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":179,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,11]],"date-time":"2022-03-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1646956800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biomolecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Within this review, sex-specific differences in alveolar epithelial functions are discussed with special focus on preterm infants and the respiratory disorders associated with premature birth. First, a short overview about fetal lung development, the challenges the lung faces during perinatal lung transition to air breathing and respiratory distress in preterm infants is given. Next, clinical observations concerning sex-specific differences in pulmonary morbidity of human preterm infants are noted. The second part discusses potential sex-specific causes of pulmonary complications, including pulmonary steroid receptors and local lung steroid metabolism. With regard to pulmonary steroid metabolism, it is important to highlight which steroidogenic enzymes are expressed at which stage during fetal lung development. Thereafter, we review the knowledge concerning sex-specific aspects of lung growth and maturation. Special focus is given to alveolar epithelial Na+ transport as a driver of perinatal lung transition and the sex differences that were noted in this process.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/biom12030437","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,11]],"date-time":"2022-03-11T12:58:36Z","timestamp":1647003516000},"page":"437","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":35,"title":["Y It Matters\u2014Sex Differences in Fetal Lung Development"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7180-2858","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mandy","family":"Laube","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, Division of Neonatology, University of Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ulrich H.","family":"Thome","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, Division of Neonatology, University of Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinbiochem.2005.10.008","article-title":"Fetal lung maturity","volume":"39","author":"Grenache","year":"2006","journal-title":"Clin. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1099-0496(199606)21:6<383::AID-PPUL6>3.0.CO;2-M","article-title":"Human lung growth: A review","volume":"21","author":"Merkus","year":"1996","journal-title":"Pediatr. Pulmonol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18042","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1311760110","article-title":"Lung epithelial branching program antagonizes alveolar differentiation","volume":"110","author":"Chang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1152\/jappl.1996.81.1.209","article-title":"Regulation of lung expansion and lung growth before birth","volume":"81","author":"Harding","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.4187\/respcare.02189","article-title":"AARC Clinical Practice Guideline. Surfactant replacement therapy: 2013","volume":"58","author":"Walsh","year":"2013","journal-title":"Respir. Care"},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"345","article-title":"Immature epithelial Na+ channel expression is one of the pathogenetic mechanisms leading to human neonatal respiratory distress syndrome","volume":"108","year":"1996","journal-title":"Proc. Assoc. Am. Physicians"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1080\/14767050701866971","article-title":"Obstetrician-gynecologists\u2019 practices regarding preterm birth at the limit of viability","volume":"21","author":"Morgan","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Matern. Fetal. Neonatal. Med."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"517","article-title":"Surface properties in relation to atelectasis and hyaline membrane disease","volume":"97","author":"Avery","year":"1959","journal-title":"AMA J. Dis. Child."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1721","DOI":"10.1067\/mob.2002.128089","article-title":"Fetal lung maturity indices-a plea for gestational age-specific interpretation: A case report and discussion","volume":"187","author":"Pinette","year":"2002","journal-title":"Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.3109\/01902148.2013.858197","article-title":"Does lung development differ in male and female fetuses?","volume":"40","author":"Ishak","year":"2014","journal-title":"Exp. Lung Res."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-3476(97)70198-7","article-title":"Decreased sodium ion absorption across nasal epithelium of very premature infants with respiratory distress syndrome","volume":"130","author":"Barker","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"628","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-3476(68)80005-8","article-title":"Birth weight, gestational age, and sex as determining factors in the incidence of respiratory distress syndrome of prematurely born infants","volume":"72","author":"Miller","year":"1968","journal-title":"J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"902","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.48.6.902","article-title":"Neonatal mortality, the male disadvantage","volume":"48","author":"Naeye","year":"1971","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"780","DOI":"10.1038\/jp.2011.191","article-title":"Increased risk for respiratory distress among white, male, late preterm and term infants","volume":"32","author":"Anadkat","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Perinatol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.1111\/ppe.12035","article-title":"Risk factors for acute respiratory morbidity in moderately preterm infants","volume":"27","author":"Altman","year":"2013","journal-title":"Paediatr. Perinat. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1210\/er.2010-0031","article-title":"Sex Differences and Sex Steroids in Lung Health and Disease","volume":"33","author":"Townsend","year":"2012","journal-title":"Endocr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1038\/pr.2011.50","article-title":"Neonatal and infant outcome in boys and girls born very prematurely","volume":"71","author":"Peacock","year":"2012","journal-title":"Pediatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"777","DOI":"10.1016\/0002-9378(85)90518-6","article-title":"Factors affecting the sex differential in neonatal mortality: The role of respiratory distress syndrome","volume":"151","author":"Khoury","year":"1985","journal-title":"Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"447","DOI":"10.1080\/08035250410025744","article-title":"Preterm male infants need more initial respiratory support than female infants","volume":"93","author":"Pollak","year":"2004","journal-title":"Acta Paediatr."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1471-0528.2003.00022.x","article-title":"Gender aspects of preterm birth","volume":"110","author":"Ingemarsson","year":"2003","journal-title":"BJOG"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"529","DOI":"10.1080\/08035250410024998","article-title":"Preterm male infants need more initial respiratory and circulatory support than female infants","volume":"93","year":"2004","journal-title":"Acta Paediatr."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"F197","DOI":"10.1136\/adc.2005.081927","article-title":"Respiratory function of very prematurely born infants at follow up: Influence of sex","volume":"91","author":"Thomas","year":"2006","journal-title":"Arch. Dis Child. Fetal. Neonatal. Ed."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.79.1.26","article-title":"Is chronic lung disease in low birth weight infants preventable? A survey of eight centers","volume":"79","author":"Avery","year":"1987","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"F182","DOI":"10.1136\/fn.83.3.F182","article-title":"Sex differences in outcomes of very low birthweight infants: The newborn male disadvantage","volume":"83","author":"Stevenson","year":"2000","journal-title":"Arch. Dis. Child. Fetal. Neonatal. Ed."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-3476(89)80345-2","article-title":"Risk factors for chronic lung disease in infants with birth weights of 751 to 1000 grams","volume":"115","author":"Kraybill","year":"1989","journal-title":"J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"332","DOI":"10.1080\/jmf.12.5.332.337","article-title":"Early changes of pulmonary mechanics to predict the severity of bronchopulmonary dysplasia in ventilated preterm infants","volume":"12","author":"Tortorolo","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Matern. Fetal. Neonatal. Med."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1159\/000313024","article-title":"Rates of bronchopulmonary dysplasia in very preterm neonates in Europe: Results from the MOSAIC cohort","volume":"99","author":"Gortner","year":"2011","journal-title":"Neonatology"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1353","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2005-0249","article-title":"Validation of the National Institutes of Health consensus definition of bronchopulmonary dysplasia","volume":"116","author":"Ehrenkranz","year":"2005","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e577","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2009-0314","article-title":"Impact of labor on outcomes in transient tachypnea of the newborn: Population-based study","volume":"125","author":"Tutdibi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"380","DOI":"10.1001\/archpedi.1966.02090070078010","article-title":"Transient tachypnea of newborn. Possible delayed resorption of fluid at birth","volume":"111","author":"Avery","year":"1966","journal-title":"Am. J. Dis. Child."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"947","DOI":"10.1007\/s00404-010-1473-6","article-title":"Transient tachypnea of the newborn: Effects of labor and delivery type in term and preterm pregnancies","volume":"283","author":"Derbent","year":"2011","journal-title":"Arch. Gynecol. Obstet."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.102.1.84","article-title":"Maternal asthma and transient tachypnea of the newborn","volume":"102","author":"Demissie","year":"1998","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"F228","DOI":"10.1136\/archdischild-2012-302369","article-title":"Oxygen saturation after birth in preterm infants treated with continuous positive airway pressure and air: Assessment of gender differences and comparison with a published nomogram","volume":"98","author":"Vento","year":"2013","journal-title":"Arch. Dis. Child. Fetal. Neonatal. Ed."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1164\/ajrccm.161.2.9903026","article-title":"Forced expiratory flows and volumes in infants. Normative data and lung growth","volume":"161","author":"Jones","year":"2000","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1084","DOI":"10.1164\/ajrccm.165.8.2103035","article-title":"Sex-specific prediction equations for Vmax(FRC) in infancy: A multicenter collaborative study","volume":"165","author":"Hoo","year":"2002","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"442","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.200503-444OC","article-title":"Reduced lung function in healthy preterm infants in the first months of life","volume":"173","author":"Friedrich","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2078","DOI":"10.1164\/ajrccm.164.11.2104053","article-title":"The association between birthweight, sex, and airway function in infants of nonsmoking mothers","volume":"164","author":"Lum","year":"2001","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1085","DOI":"10.1097\/AOG.0b013e3181bd8874","article-title":"Effect of fetal sex on pregnancy outcome in twin pregnancies","volume":"114","author":"Melamed","year":"2009","journal-title":"Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1597","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199311253292201","article-title":"The limit of viability--neonatal outcome of infants born at 22 to 25 weeks\u2019 gestation","volume":"329","author":"Allen","year":"1993","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"1","article-title":"Births: Final data for 2004","volume":"55","author":"Martin","year":"2006","journal-title":"Natl. Vital. Stat. Rep."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.17305\/bjbms.2009.2811","article-title":"The effects of antenatal corticosteroids and surfactant replacement on neonatal respiratory distress syndrome","volume":"9","author":"Heljic","year":"2009","journal-title":"Bosn. J. Basic Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1723","DOI":"10.1164\/ajrccm.163.7.2011060","article-title":"Bronchopulmonary dysplasia","volume":"163","author":"Jobe","year":"2001","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Collaborative group on antenatal steroid therapy (1981). Effect of antenatal dexamethasone administration on the prevention of respiratory distress syndrome. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 141, 276\u2013287.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0002-9378(16)32633-3"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.1164\/ajrccm.181.5.523","article-title":"Sex differences in human lung development","volume":"181","author":"Kauffmann","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1016\/S1701-2163(16)34822-8","article-title":"Role of fetal sex in the outcome of antenatal glucocorticoid treatment to prevent respiratory distress syndrome: Systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"33","author":"Roberge","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Obstet. Gynaecol. Can."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-3476(80)80204-6","article-title":"Fetal sex and prenatal betamethasone therapy","volume":"97","author":"Ballard","year":"1980","journal-title":"J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"614","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.67.5.614","article-title":"Incidence of respiratory distress syndrome following antenatal betamethasone: Role of sex, type of delivery, and prolonged rupture of membranes","volume":"67","author":"Papageorgiou","year":"1981","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1820","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(05)63635-5","article-title":"Sex differences in fetal mouth movements","volume":"350","author":"Hepper","year":"1997","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"803","article-title":"Postnatal growth and development of the lung","volume":"111","author":"Thurlbeck","year":"1975","journal-title":"Am. Rev. Respir. Dis."},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"377","article-title":"The influence of sex on fetal rabbit lung maturation and on the response to glucocorticoid","volume":"121","author":"Kotas","year":"1980","journal-title":"Am. Rev. Respir. Dis."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"885","DOI":"10.1203\/00006450-199712000-00027","article-title":"Postnatal Lung Function after Prenatal Steroid Treatment in Sheep: Effect of Gender","volume":"42","author":"Willet","year":"1997","journal-title":"Pediatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"13","article-title":"Respiratory adaptation and surfactant composition of unanesthetized male and female lambs differ for up to 8\u2009h after preterm birth","volume":"79","author":"Ishak","year":"2015","journal-title":"Pediatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L991","DOI":"10.1152\/ajplung.00230.2017","article-title":"Sexual dimorphism of the pulmonary transcriptome in neonatal hyperoxic lung injury: Identification of angiogenesis as a key pathway","volume":"313","author":"Coarfa","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell Mol. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tox.2015.01.019","article-title":"Sex-specific differences in hyperoxic lung injury in mice: Role of cytochrome P450 (CYP)1A","volume":"331","author":"Lingappan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Toxicology"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"851","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-3476(73)80388-9","article-title":"Plasma estriol concentration in infants with the respiratory distress syndrome","volume":"83","author":"Conly","year":"1973","journal-title":"J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1016\/0002-9378(79)90479-4","article-title":"Stimulation of fetal lung surfactant production by administration of 17beta-estradiol to the maternal rabbit","volume":"133","author":"Khosla","year":"1979","journal-title":"Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"506","DOI":"10.1016\/0002-9378(85)90279-0","article-title":"Estrogen stimulates formation of lamellar bodies and release of surfactant in the rat fetal lung","volume":"151","author":"Moawad","year":"1985","journal-title":"Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"492","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.200805-794OC","article-title":"Postnatal estradiol up-regulates lung nitric oxide synthases and improves lung function in bronchopulmonary dysplasia","volume":"179","author":"McCurnin","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"F94","DOI":"10.1136\/adc.2006.097170","article-title":"Effect of oestradiol and progesterone replacement on bronchopulmonary dysplasia in extremely preterm infants","volume":"92","author":"Trotter","year":"2007","journal-title":"Arch. Dis. Child. Fetal. Neonatal. Ed."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"619","DOI":"10.1203\/01.pdr.0000242262.55324.aa","article-title":"Amiloride-sensitive nasal potential difference is not changed by estradiol and progesterone replacement but relates to BPD or death in a randomized trial on preterm infants","volume":"60","author":"Thome","year":"2006","journal-title":"Pediatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4531","DOI":"10.1210\/jcem.84.12.6180","article-title":"Effects of postnatal estradiol and progesterone replacement in extremely preterm infants","volume":"84","author":"Trotter","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"608","DOI":"10.3109\/07853890009002031","article-title":"The replacement of oestradiol and progesterone in very premature infants","volume":"32","author":"Trotter","year":"2000","journal-title":"Ann. Med."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"306","DOI":"10.1210\/endo-106-1-306","article-title":"Plasma testosterone and progesterone titers of pregnant rats, their male and female fetuses, and neonatal offspring","volume":"106","author":"Weisz","year":"1980","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1210\/edrv-8-1-1","article-title":"Biological actions of androgens","volume":"8","author":"Mooradian","year":"1987","journal-title":"Endocr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"308","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tem.2007.08.003","article-title":"It\u2019s all about sex: Gender, lung development and lung disease","volume":"18","author":"Carey","year":"2007","journal-title":"Trends Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L272","DOI":"10.1152\/ajplung.00174.2007","article-title":"The impact of sex and sex hormones on lung physiology and disease: Lessons from animal studies","volume":"293","author":"Carey","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell Mol. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1535","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.2001.81.4.1535","article-title":"Mechanisms of estrogen action","volume":"81","author":"Nilsson","year":"2001","journal-title":"Physiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4613","DOI":"10.1210\/endo.138.11.5496","article-title":"Tissue distribution and quantitative analysis of estrogen receptor-alpha (ERalpha) and estrogen receptor-beta (ERbeta) messenger ribonucleic acid in the wild-type and ERalpha-knockout mouse","volume":"138","author":"Couse","year":"1997","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"813","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biocel.2009.11.013","article-title":"Molecular cell biology of androgen receptor signalling","volume":"42","author":"Bennett","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Biochem. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1210\/me.2002-0206","article-title":"Estrogen receptor (ER)-beta reduces ERalpha-regulated gene transcription, supporting a \u201cying yang\u201d relationship between ERalpha and ERbeta in mice","volume":"17","author":"Lindberg","year":"2003","journal-title":"Mol. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3873","DOI":"10.1007\/s00018-009-0118-z","article-title":"Regulation of estrogen receptor beta activity and implications in health and disease","volume":"66","author":"Swedenborg","year":"2009","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kaltofen, T., Haase, M., Thome, U.H., and Laube, M. (2015). Male Sex is Associated with a Reduced Alveolar Epithelial Sodium Transport. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0136178"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8542","DOI":"10.1128\/MCB.23.23.8542-8552.2003","article-title":"Regulation of postnatal lung development and homeostasis by estrogen receptor beta","volume":"23","author":"Patrone","year":"2003","journal-title":"Mol. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1439-0264.2011.01096.x","article-title":"Expression of oestrogen receptors in foetal lung tissue of mice","volume":"41","author":"Carvalho","year":"2012","journal-title":"Anat. Histol. Embryol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pharmthera.2015.01.007","article-title":"Sex steroid signaling: Implications for lung diseases","volume":"150","author":"Sathish","year":"2015","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1530\/eje.0.1480281","article-title":"Non-genomic actions of sex steroid hormones","volume":"148","author":"Simoncini","year":"2003","journal-title":"Eur. J. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yhbeh.2003.09.013","article-title":"Steroid receptor control of reproductive behavior","volume":"45","author":"Auger","year":"2004","journal-title":"Horm. Behav."},{"key":"ref_78","first-page":"291","article-title":"The A and B isoforms of the human progesterone receptor: Two functionally different transcription factors encoded by a single gene","volume":"54","author":"Giangrande","year":"1999","journal-title":"Recent. Prog. Horm. Res."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.physiol.67.040403.120151","article-title":"Regulation of signal transduction pathways by estrogen and progesterone","volume":"67","author":"Edwards","year":"2005","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_80","first-page":"1244","article-title":"Human progesterone receptor A form is a cell- and promoter-specific repressor of human progesterone receptor B function","volume":"7","author":"Vegeto","year":"1993","journal-title":"Mol. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2008","DOI":"10.1093\/emboj\/17.7.2008","article-title":"Activation of the Src\/p21ras\/Erk pathway by progesterone receptor via cross-talk with estrogen receptor","volume":"17","author":"Migliaccio","year":"1998","journal-title":"EMBO J."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1093\/humupd\/dmn044","article-title":"Non-genomic progesterone actions in female reproduction","volume":"15","author":"Gellersen","year":"2009","journal-title":"Hum. Reprod. Update"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37708","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M104582200","article-title":"The classical progesterone receptor associates with p42 MAPK and is involved in phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase signaling in Xenopus oocytes","volume":"276","author":"Bagowski","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"935","DOI":"10.1007\/s00408-014-9640-3","article-title":"The interaction of glucocorticoids and progesterone distinctively affects epithelial sodium transport","volume":"192","author":"Schmidt","year":"2014","journal-title":"Lung"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"857","DOI":"10.1677\/joe.1.06896","article-title":"Developmental and hormonal regulation of progesterone receptor A-form expression in female mouse lung in vivo: Interaction with glucocorticoid receptors","volume":"190","author":"Shao","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"977","DOI":"10.1177\/153537020422901001","article-title":"Aging-related changes in ovarian hormones, their receptors, and neuroendocrine function","volume":"229","author":"Chakraborty","year":"2004","journal-title":"Exp. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-4731(82)90002-4","article-title":"Androgen receptors in fetal rabbit lung and the effect of fetal sex on the levels of circulating hormones and pulmonary hormone receptors","volume":"17","author":"Giannopoulos","year":"1982","journal-title":"J. Steroid. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"654","DOI":"10.1210\/mend.12.5.0112","article-title":"Functional activities of the A and B forms of the human androgen receptor in response to androgen receptor agonists and antagonists","volume":"12","author":"Gao","year":"1998","journal-title":"Mol. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1179","DOI":"10.1016\/j.steroids.2003.08.016","article-title":"Androgen receptor isoforms AR-A and AR-B display functional differences in cultured human bone cells and genital skin fibroblasts","volume":"68","author":"Liegibel","year":"2003","journal-title":"Steroids"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yfrne.2007.08.004","article-title":"Rapid actions of androgens","volume":"29","author":"Michels","year":"2008","journal-title":"Front. Neuroendocrinol."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1615\/CritRevEukarGeneExpr.v5.i2.10","article-title":"Androgen receptor: An overview","volume":"5","author":"Chang","year":"1995","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Eukaryot. Gene Expr."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"356","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0029-1192033","article-title":"Sex-specific Regulation of ENaC and Androgen Receptor in Female Rat Kidney","volume":"41","author":"Kienitz","year":"2009","journal-title":"Horm. Metab. Res."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.1055\/s-2006-925328","article-title":"Emerging roles of steroid-binding globulins","volume":"38","author":"Caldwell","year":"2006","journal-title":"Horm. Metab. Res."},{"key":"ref_94","first-page":"719","article-title":"Nongenotropic, sex-nonspecific signaling through the estrogen or androgen receptors: Dissociation from transcriptional activity","volume":"104","author":"Kousteni","year":"2001","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5406","DOI":"10.1093\/emboj\/19.20.5406","article-title":"Steroid-induced androgen receptor-oestradiol receptor beta-Src complex triggers prostate cancer cell proliferation","volume":"19","author":"Migliaccio","year":"2000","journal-title":"EMBO J."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mce.2005.10.015","article-title":"17Beta-HSD type 5 expression and the emergence of differentiated epithelial Type II cells in fetal lung: A novel role for androgen during the surge of surfactant","volume":"248","author":"Tremblay","year":"2006","journal-title":"Mol. Cell Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mce.2009.12.007","article-title":"Type 2 and 5 17\u03b2-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases and androgen receptor in human fetal lungs","volume":"319","author":"Simard","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mol. Cell Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1016\/0303-7207(96)03819-1","article-title":"A and B forms of the androgen receptor are expressed in a variety of human tissues","volume":"120","author":"Wilson","year":"1996","journal-title":"Mol. Cell Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1203\/00006450-198001000-00016","article-title":"Androgen receptors and metabolism in cultured human fetal fibroblasts","volume":"14","author":"Sultan","year":"1980","journal-title":"Pediatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"709","DOI":"10.1042\/CS20030236","article-title":"Expression of androgen receptor and 5alpha-reductase types 1 and 2 in early gestation fetal lung: A possible correlation with branching morphogenesis","volume":"105","author":"Kimura","year":"2003","journal-title":"Clin. Sci."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsbmb.2009.08.006","article-title":"Epithelial cells are the major site of hydroxysteroid (17\u03b2) dehydrogenase 2 and androgen receptor expression in fetal mouse lungs during the period overlapping the surge of surfactant","volume":"117","author":"Plante","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Steroid. Biochem. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L405","DOI":"10.1152\/ajplung.00275.2016","article-title":"Sex-specific effects of sex steroids on alveolar epithelial Na+ transport","volume":"312","author":"Haase","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell Mol. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1165\/ajrcmb.24.1.4024","article-title":"Expression of the human glucocorticoid receptor alpha and beta isoforms in human respiratory epithelial cells and their regulation by dexamethasone","volume":"24","author":"Pujols","year":"2001","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27857","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.274.39.27857","article-title":"The dominant negative activity of the human glucocorticoid receptor beta isoform. Specificity and mechanisms of action","volume":"274","author":"Oakley","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1608","DOI":"10.1101\/gad.9.13.1608","article-title":"Targeted disruption of the glucocorticoid receptor gene blocks adrenergic chromaffin cell development and severely retards lung maturation","volume":"9","author":"Cole","year":"1995","journal-title":"Genes Dev."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Laube, M., Riedel, D., Ackermann, B., Haase, M., and Thome, U.H. (2019). Glucocorticoids Equally Stimulate Epithelial Na+ Transport in Male and Female Fetal Alveolar Cells. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21010057"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1002\/ppul.1082","article-title":"Sex differences in response to steroids in preterm sheep lungs are not explained by glucocorticoid receptor number or binding affinity","volume":"32","author":"Kovar","year":"2001","journal-title":"Pediatr. Pulmonol."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1016\/S0079-6123(08)81010-2","article-title":"The intracrine sex steroid biosynthesis pathways","volume":"181","author":"Labrie","year":"2010","journal-title":"Prog. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsbmb.2003.07.006","article-title":"Profiling transcript levels for steroidogenic enzymes in fetal tissues","volume":"87","author":"Pezzi","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Steroid. Biochem. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"C113","DOI":"10.1016\/0303-7207(91)90116-A","article-title":"Intracrinology","volume":"78","author":"Labrie","year":"1991","journal-title":"Mol. Cell Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_111","first-page":"3883","article-title":"Androgen inactivation in human lung fibroblasts: Variations in levels of 17 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 and 5 alpha-reductase activity compatible with androgen inactivation","volume":"87","author":"Provost","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2786","DOI":"10.1210\/endo.141.8.7589","article-title":"Androgen formation and metabolism in the pulmonary epithelial cell line A549: Expression of 17beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 5 and 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3","volume":"141","author":"Provost","year":"2000","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsbmb.2006.07.002","article-title":"Mouse 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase mRNA: A marker of lung maturity","volume":"103","author":"Provost","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Steroid. Biochem. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"729","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tem.2010.09.001","article-title":"Sex hormone metabolism in lung development and maturation","volume":"21","author":"Seaborn","year":"2010","journal-title":"Trends Endocr. Metab."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsbmb.2013.03.006","article-title":"Major enzymes controlling the androgenic pressure in the developing lung","volume":"137","author":"Tremblay","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Steroid. Biochem. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2272","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI111654","article-title":"Antiestrogenic action of dihydrotestosterone in mouse breast. Competition with estradiol for binding to the estrogen receptor","volume":"74","author":"Casey","year":"1984","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"475","DOI":"10.1007\/s10571-008-9339-1","article-title":"17beta-estradiol induces transthyretin expression in murine choroid plexus via an oestrogen receptor dependent pathway","volume":"29","author":"Quintela","year":"2009","journal-title":"Cell Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"316","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsbmb.2013.01.012","article-title":"Interaction of Androst-5-ene-3\u03b2,17\u03b2-diol and 5\u03b1-androstane-3\u03b2,17\u03b2-diol with estrogen and androgen receptors: A combined binding and cell study","volume":"137","author":"Chen","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Steroid. Biochem. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1105","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.92.4.1105","article-title":"Sexual dimorphism in the architecture of the lung\u2019s gas-exchange region","volume":"92","author":"Massaro","year":"1995","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_120","first-page":"L110","article-title":"Estrogen modulates the dimensions of the lung\u2019s gas-exchange surface area and alveoli in female rats","volume":"270","author":"Massaro","year":"1996","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1203\/01.pdr.0000220360.77567.d8","article-title":"Prenatal estrogen and progesterone deprivation impairs alveolar formation and fluid clearance in newborn piglets","volume":"60","author":"Trotter","year":"2006","journal-title":"Pediatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1016\/j.earlhumdev.2008.12.013","article-title":"Gender-related effects of prenatal administration of estrogen and progesterone receptor antagonists on VEGF and surfactant-proteins and on alveolarisation in the developing piglet lung","volume":"85","author":"Trotter","year":"2009","journal-title":"Early Hum. Dev."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L866","DOI":"10.1152\/ajplung.00396.2005","article-title":"Estrogen receptor regulation of pulmonary alveolar dimensions: Alveolar sexual dimorphism in mice","volume":"290","author":"Massaro","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell Mol. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L1154","DOI":"10.1152\/ajplung.00228.2004","article-title":"Estrogen regulates pulmonary alveolar formation, loss, and regeneration in mice","volume":"287","author":"Massaro","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell Mol. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_125","first-page":"L222","article-title":"Estrogen receptor-alpha regulates pulmonary alveolar loss and regeneration in female mice: Morphometric and gene expression studies","volume":"293","author":"Massaro","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Renal. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L231","DOI":"10.1152\/ajplung.00342.2013","article-title":"Reduced platelet-derived growth factor receptor expression is a primary feature of human bronchopulmonary dysplasia","volume":"307","author":"Popova","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell Mol. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17070","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-35256-z","article-title":"Gene Expression Signatures Point to a Male Sex-Specific Lung Mesenchymal Cell PDGF Receptor Signaling Defect in Infants Developing Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia","volume":"8","author":"Fulton","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170491","DOI":"10.1155\/2009\/170491","article-title":"Combined application of 17beta-estradiol and progesterone enhance vascular endothelial growth factor and surfactant protein expression in cultured embryonic lung cells of mice","volume":"2009","author":"Trotter","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2796.2008.01976.x","article-title":"Biological functions and clinical implications of oestrogen receptors alfa and beta in epithelial tissues","volume":"264","author":"Morani","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.1210\/edrv-11-2-266","article-title":"Progestin regulation of cellular proliferation","volume":"11","author":"Clarke","year":"1990","journal-title":"Endocr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"661","DOI":"10.1006\/bbrc.2001.4827","article-title":"Nongenomic estrogen action in human lung myofibroblasts","volume":"283","author":"Bringas","year":"2001","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.3109\/01902148909087851","article-title":"Sex hormones influence growth and surfactant production in fetal lung explants","volume":"15","author":"McMillan","year":"1989","journal-title":"Exp. Lung Res."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1161\/01.HYP.32.1.39","article-title":"Effects of gonadal steroids and their antagonists on DNA synthesis in human vascular cells","volume":"32","author":"Somjen","year":"1998","journal-title":"Hypertension"},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/0014-4827(90)90281-E","article-title":"Coordination of growth and differentiation in the fetal lung","volume":"188","author":"Nielsen","year":"1990","journal-title":"Exp. Cell Res."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1016\/0960-0760(94)90025-6","article-title":"Androgen receptors, 5 alpha-reductase activity and androgen-dependent proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells","volume":"50","author":"Fujimoto","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Steroid. Biochem. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"603","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biocel.2008.07.004","article-title":"A cross-talk between the androgen receptor and the epidermal growth factor receptor leads to p38MAPK-dependent activation of mTOR and cyclinD1 expression in prostate and lung cancer cells","volume":"41","author":"Recchia","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Biochem. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1203\/00006450-200004000-00012","article-title":"Dihydrotestosterone stimulates branching morphogenesis, cell proliferation, and programmed cell death in mouse embryonic lung explants","volume":"47","author":"Levesque","year":"2000","journal-title":"Pediatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"238","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.78.2.238","article-title":"Discordance between male and female deaths due to the respiratory distress syndrome","volume":"78","author":"Perelman","year":"1986","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mce.2009.12.022","article-title":"Androgen receptor and androgen-dependent gene expression in lung","volume":"317","author":"Mikkonen","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mol. Cell Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_140","first-page":"L103","article-title":"Glucocorticoid receptor mRNA and protein in fetal rat lung in vivo: Modulation by glucocorticoid and androgen","volume":"275","author":"Sweezey","year":"1998","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"543","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-4731(79)90080-3","article-title":"Plasma androgens (Testosterone and 4-androstenedione) and 17-hydroxyprogesterone in the neonatal, prepubertal and peripubertal periods in the human and the rat: Differences between species","volume":"11","author":"Forest","year":"1979","journal-title":"J. Steroid. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1007\/s00408-010-9231-x","article-title":"Levels of Dihydrotestosterone, Testosterone, Androstenedione, and Estradiol in Canalicular, Saccular, and Alveolar Mouse Lungs","volume":"188","author":"Boucher","year":"2010","journal-title":"Lung"},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-4731(84)90383-2","article-title":"Testosterone, dihydrotestos.sterone and estradiol-17 beta levels in maternal and fetal plasma and in fetal testes in the rat","volume":"21","author":"Habert","year":"1984","journal-title":"J. Steroid. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1186\/1477-7827-8-2","article-title":"Gene expression profile of androgen modulated genes in the murine fetal developing lung","volume":"8","author":"Bresson","year":"2010","journal-title":"Reprod. Biol. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_145","first-page":"327","article-title":"Lung profile: Sex differences in normal pregnancy","volume":"66","author":"Fleisher","year":"1985","journal-title":"Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3109\/01902148709068811","article-title":"The sex difference in fetal lung surfactant production","volume":"12","author":"Torday","year":"1987","journal-title":"Exp. Lung Res."},{"key":"ref_147","first-page":"205","article-title":"Sex differences in fetal lung maturation","volume":"123","author":"Torday","year":"1981","journal-title":"Am. Rev. Respir. Dis."},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI111943","article-title":"Androgen receptors influence the production of pulmonary surfactant in the testicular feminization mouse fetus","volume":"76","author":"Nielsen","year":"1985","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1016\/0167-4889(89)90097-9","article-title":"Epidermal growth factor influences the developmental clock regulating maturation of the fetal lung fibroblast","volume":"1012","author":"Nielsen","year":"1989","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta"},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1016\/0304-4165(86)90330-2","article-title":"The development of surfactant synthesis in fetal rabbit lung organ culture exhibits a sex dimorphism","volume":"883","author":"Nielsen","year":"1986","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta"},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1245","DOI":"10.1203\/00006450-198109000-00004","article-title":"Sex differences in fetal rabbit pulmonary surfactant production","volume":"15","author":"Nielsen","year":"1981","journal-title":"Pediatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"611","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI110488","article-title":"Dihydrotestosterone inhibits fetal rabbit pulmonary surfactant production","volume":"69","author":"Nielsen","year":"1982","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"597","DOI":"10.1126\/science.7367881","article-title":"Sexual characteristics of adult female mice are correlated with their blood testosterone levels during prenatal development","volume":"208","author":"Bronson","year":"1980","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2923","DOI":"10.1210\/endo.141.8.7615","article-title":"Androgen regulation of signaling pathways in late fetal mouse lung development","volume":"141","author":"Dammann","year":"2000","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1677\/JOE-08-0238","article-title":"Apolipoprotein A-I, A-II, C-II, and H expression in the developing lung and sex difference in surfactant lipids","volume":"200","author":"Provost","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_156","first-page":"456","article-title":"Sex differences in development of fetal rat lung. I. Autoradiographic and biochemical studies","volume":"50","author":"Adamson","year":"1984","journal-title":"Lab. Investig."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1299","DOI":"10.1016\/0002-9378(88)90467-X","article-title":"M\u00fcllerian inhibiting substance depresses accumulation in vitro of disaturated phosphatidylcholine in fetal rat lung","volume":"159","author":"Catlin","year":"1988","journal-title":"Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"466","DOI":"10.1164\/ajrccm\/141.2.466","article-title":"Sex-specific fetal lung development and m\u00fcllerian inhibiting substance","volume":"141","author":"Catlin","year":"1990","journal-title":"Am. Rev. Respir. Dis."},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1178","DOI":"10.1016\/0026-0495(91)90213-G","article-title":"M\u00fcllerian inhibiting substance blocks epidermal growth factor receptor phosphorylation in fetal rat lung membranes","volume":"40","author":"Catlin","year":"1991","journal-title":"Metabolism"},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1592","DOI":"10.1210\/endo-114-5-1592","article-title":"Androgen stimulation of nucleotide pyrophosphatase during mullerian duct regression","volume":"114","author":"Fallat","year":"1984","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1016\/S0002-9378(16)32593-5","article-title":"Sex differences in lung and adrenal neurosympathetic development in rabbits","volume":"141","author":"Padbury","year":"1981","journal-title":"Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"828","DOI":"10.1152\/jappl.1987.63.2.828","article-title":"Beta-receptors and surface active material flux in fetal lamb lung: Female advantage","volume":"63","author":"Warburton","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1016\/0012-1606(90)90276-O","article-title":"Fetal rat lung fibroblasts produce a TGF\u03b2 homolog that blocks alveolar type II cell maturation","volume":"139","author":"Torday","year":"1990","journal-title":"Dev. Biol."},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02981467","article-title":"Glucocorticoid-induced down regulation of transforming growth factor-beta 1 in adult rat lung fibroblasts","volume":"173","author":"Shull","year":"1995","journal-title":"Lung"},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13592","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9258(19)76469-2","article-title":"Dihydrotestosterone blocks fetal lung fibroblast-pneumonocyte factor at a pretranslational level","volume":"262","author":"Floros","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1016\/0005-2760(85)90025-6","article-title":"Dihydrotestosterone inhibits fibroblast-pneumonocyte factor-mediated synthesis of saturated phosphatidylcholine by fetal rat lung cells","volume":"835","author":"Torday","year":"1985","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta"},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"722","DOI":"10.1203\/00006450-199912000-00003","article-title":"Identification of sex-specific differences in surfactant synthesis in rat lung","volume":"46","author":"McCoy","year":"1999","journal-title":"Pediatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1159\/000014219","article-title":"Bioactive transforming growth factor-beta in the lungs of extremely low birthweight neonates predicts the need for home oxygen supplementation","volume":"77","author":"Lecart","year":"2000","journal-title":"Biol. Neonate."},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"408","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-291X(84)91667-X","article-title":"Glucocorticoids increase pulmonary epidermal growth factor receptors in female and male fetal rabbit","volume":"119","author":"Sadiq","year":"1984","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI116218","article-title":"Androgen regulation of epidermal growth factor receptor binding activity during fetal rabbit lung development","volume":"91","author":"Klein","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"446","DOI":"10.3181\/00379727-199-43379","article-title":"Testosterone regulation of sex differences in fetal lung development","volume":"199","author":"Nielsen","year":"1992","journal-title":"Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1055\/s-2005-861040","article-title":"The physiologic significance of 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 in fetal lung development redux","volume":"37","author":"Torday","year":"2005","journal-title":"Horm. Metab. Res."},{"key":"ref_173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"C379","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpcell.1998.274.2.C379","article-title":"Female gender hormones regulate mRNA levels and function of the rat lung epithelial Na channel","volume":"274","author":"Sweezey","year":"1998","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_174","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L878","DOI":"10.1152\/ajplung.00008.2013","article-title":"Estradiol activates epithelial sodium channels in rat alveolar cells through the G protein-coupled estrogen receptor","volume":"305","author":"Greenlee","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell Mol. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yusef, Y.R., Thomas, W., and Harvey, B.J. (2014). Estrogen increases ENaC activity via PKCdelta signaling in renal cortical collecting duct cells. Physiol. Rep., 2.","DOI":"10.14814\/phy2.12020"},{"key":"ref_176","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1203\/PDR.0b013e3182070ec8","article-title":"Modulation of Sodium Transport in Alveolar Epithelial Cells by Estradiol and Progesterone","volume":"69","author":"Laube","year":"2011","journal-title":"Pediatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_177","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L804","DOI":"10.1152\/ajplung.00445.2010","article-title":"Phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate stimulates alveolar epithelial fluid clearance in male and female adult rats","volume":"301","author":"Kooijman","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell Mol. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_178","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32289","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M111.247825","article-title":"N-myc Downstream-regulated Gene 2, a Novel Estrogen-targeted Gene, Is Involved in the Regulation of Na+\/K+-ATPase","volume":"286","author":"Li","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_179","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-95410-y","article-title":"Epidermal growth factor strongly affects epithelial Na+ transport and barrier function in fetal alveolar cells, with minor sex-specific effects","volume":"11","author":"Laube","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."}],"container-title":["Biomolecules"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2218-273X\/12\/3\/437\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:35:20Z","timestamp":1760135720000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2218-273X\/12\/3\/437"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,11]]},"references-count":179,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,3]]}},"alternative-id":["biom12030437"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/biom12030437","relation":{},"ISSN":["2218-273X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2218-273X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,11]]}}}