{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,6]],"date-time":"2026-11-06T02:34:44Z","timestamp":1793932484763,"version":"4.8.0"},"reference-count":394,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,17]],"date-time":"2022-05-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1652745600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Czech Ministry of Health","award":["NU21-04-0053"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NU21-04-0053"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biomolecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Disruption of cerebral iron regulation appears to have a role in aging and in the pathogenesis of various neurodegenerative disorders. Possible unfavorable impacts of iron accumulation include reactive oxygen species generation, induction of ferroptosis, and acceleration of inflammatory changes. Whole-brain iron-sensitive magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) techniques allow the examination of macroscopic patterns of brain iron deposits in vivo, while modern analytical methods ex vivo enable the determination of metal-specific content inside individual cell-types, sometimes also within specific cellular compartments. The present review summarizes the whole brain, cellular, and subcellular patterns of iron accumulation in neurodegenerative diseases of genetic and sporadic origin. We also provide an update on mechanisms, biomarkers, and effects of brain iron accumulation in these disorders, focusing on recent publications. In Parkinson\u2019s disease, Friedreich\u2019s disease, and several disorders within the neurodegeneration with brain iron accumulation group, there is a focal siderosis, typically in regions with the most pronounced neuropathological changes. The second group of disorders including multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer\u2019s disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis shows iron accumulation in the globus pallidus, caudate, and putamen, and in specific cortical regions. Yet, other disorders such as aceruloplasminemia, neuroferritinopathy, or Wilson disease manifest with diffuse iron accumulation in the deep gray matter in a pattern comparable to or even more extensive than that observed during normal aging. On the microscopic level, brain iron deposits are present mostly in dystrophic microglia variably accompanied by iron-laden macrophages and in astrocytes, implicating a role of inflammatory changes and blood\u2013brain barrier disturbance in iron accumulation. Options and potential benefits of iron reducing strategies in neurodegeneration are discussed. Future research investigating whether genetic predispositions play a role in brain Fe accumulation is necessary. If confirmed, the prevention of further brain Fe uptake in individuals at risk may be key for preventing neurodegenerative disorders.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/biom12050714","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,17]],"date-time":"2022-05-17T08:34:29Z","timestamp":1652776469000},"page":"714","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":167,"title":["Cerebral Iron Deposition in Neurodegeneration"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4877-9642","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Petr","family":"Dusek","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology and Center of Clinical Neuroscience, 1st Faculty of Medicine and General University Hospital in Prague, Charles University in Prague, 120 00 Prague, Czech Republic"},{"name":"Department of Radiology, 1st Faculty of Medicine and General University Hospital in Prague, Charles University in Prague, 120 00 Prague, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4757-2033","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tim","family":"Hofer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental Health, Division of Climate and Health, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, P.O. Box 222, Sk\u00f8yen, 0213 Oslo, Norway"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6381-5720","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jan","family":"Alexander","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental Health, Division of Climate and Health, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, P.O. Box 222, Sk\u00f8yen, 0213 Oslo, Norway"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3202-9687","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Per M.","family":"Roos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, 171 77 Stockholm, Sweden"},{"name":"Department of Clinical Physiology, St. Goran Hospital, 112 81 Stockholm, Sweden"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7518-5703","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jan O.","family":"Aaseth","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Department, Innlandet Hospital Trust, P.O. Box 104, 2381 Brumunddal, Norway"},{"name":"Faculty of Health and Social Sciences, Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, P.O. Box 400, 2418 Elverum, Norway"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Urrutia, P.J., Borquez, D.A., and Nunez, M.T. (2021). Inflaming the Brain with Iron. Antioxidants, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox10010061"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hinarejos, I., Machuca-Arellano, C., Sancho, P., and Espinos, C. (2020). Mitochondrial Dysfunction, Oxidative Stress and Neuroinflammation in Neurodegeneration with Brain Iron Accumulation (Nbia). Antioxidants, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox9101020"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainresbull.2019.09.006","article-title":"Iron Dysregulation in Vascular Dementia: Focused on the Ampk\/Autophagy Pathway","volume":"153","author":"Huo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Brain Res. 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