{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,4]],"date-time":"2026-06-04T10:31:45Z","timestamp":1780569105150,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":141,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,11]],"date-time":"2022-07-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1657497600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"The Oman Research Council (TRC)","award":["BFP\/RGP\/HSS\/19\/198"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BFP\/RGP\/HSS\/19\/198"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biomolecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The number of deaths has been increased due to COVID-19 infections and uncertain neurological complications associated with the central nervous system. Post-infections and neurological manifestations in neuronal tissues caused by COVID-19 are still unknown and there is a need to explore how brainstorming promoted congenital impairment, dementia, and Alzheimer\u2019s disease. SARS-CoV-2 neuro-invasion studies in vivo are still rare, despite the fact that other beta-coronaviruses have shown similar properties. Neural (olfactory or vagal) and hematogenous (crossing the blood\u2013brain barrier) pathways have been hypothesized in light of new evidence showing the existence of SARS-CoV-2 host cell entry receptors into the specific components of human nerve and vascular tissue. Spike proteins are the primary key and structural component of the COVID-19 that promotes the infection into brain cells. Neurological manifestations and serious neurodegeneration occur through the binding of spike proteins to ACE2 receptor. The emerging evidence reported that, due to the high rate in the immediate wake of viral infection, the olfactory bulb, thalamus, and brain stem are intensely infected through a trans-synaptic transfer of the virus. It also instructs the release of chemokines, cytokines, and inflammatory signals immensely to the blood\u2013brain barrier and infects the astrocytes, which causes neuroinflammation and neuron death; and this induction of excessive inflammation and immune response developed in more neurodegeneration complications. The present review revealed the pathophysiological effects, molecular, and cellular mechanisms of possible entry routes into the brain, pathogenicity of autoantibodies and emerging immunotherapies against COVID-19.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/biom12070971","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,11]],"date-time":"2022-07-11T21:57:53Z","timestamp":1657576673000},"page":"971","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":25,"title":["Pathological Features and Neuroinflammatory Mechanisms of SARS-CoV-2 in the Brain and Potential Therapeutic Approaches"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1834-8561","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aisha","family":"Sodagar","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Botany, Faculty of Sciences, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad 38040, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rasab","family":"Javed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Microbiology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad 38040, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hira","family":"Tahir","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Botany, Government College Women University Faisalabad, Faisalabad 38000, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7477-0284","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Saiful Izwan Abd","family":"Razak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bioinspired Device and Tissue Engineering Research Group, School of Biomedical Engineering and Health Sciences, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru 81310, Johor, Malaysia"},{"name":"Sports Innovation & Technology Centre, Institute of Human Centred Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru 81310, Johor, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0818-6965","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Muhammad","family":"Shakir","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Life Sciences, Northeast Normal University, Changchun 130024, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5078-5470","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Muhammad","family":"Naeem","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Life Science, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang 050024, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Abdul Halim Abdul","family":"Yusof","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Chemical and Energy Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru 81310, Johor, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Suresh","family":"Sagadevan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nanotechnology & Catalysis Research Centre, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5118-9419","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abu","family":"Hazafa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad 38040, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8613-4493","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jalal","family":"Uddin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, King Khalid University, Abha 62529, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ajmal","family":"Khan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Natural and Medical Sciences Research Center, University of Nizwa, Birkat Al Mauz, Nizwa 616, Oman"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0815-5942","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ahmed","family":"Al-Harrasi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Natural and Medical Sciences Research Center, University of Nizwa, Birkat Al Mauz, Nizwa 616, Oman"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Crunfli, F., Carregari, V.C., Veras, F.P., Vendramini, P.H., Valen\u00e7a, A.G.F., Antunes, A.S.L.M., Brand\u00e3o-Teles, C., da Silva Zuccoli, G., Reis-de-Oliveira, G., and Silva-Costa, L.C. (2022). Morphological, cellular and molecular basis of brain infection in COVID-19 patients. medRxiv, medRxiv:2020.10.09.20207464v5."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eabf8396","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.abf8396","article-title":"COVID-19-related anosmia is associated with viral persistence and inflammation in human olfactory epithelium and brain infection in hamsters","volume":"13","author":"Melo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1056","DOI":"10.1002\/alz.12255","article-title":"The chronic neuropsychiatric sequelae of COVID-19: The need for a prospective study of viral impact on brain functioning","volume":"17","author":"Snyder","year":"2021","journal-title":"Alzheimer\u2019s Dement."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3856","DOI":"10.1111\/ene.15045","article-title":"Neuropathological findings from COVID-19 patients with neurological symptoms argue against a direct brain invasion of SARS-CoV-2: A critical systematic review","volume":"28","author":"Cosentino","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"550","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.26309","article-title":"Encephalitic syndrome and anosmia in COVID-19: Do these clinical presentations really reflect SARS-CoV-2 neurotropism? A theory based on the review of 25 COVID-19 cases","volume":"93","author":"Pouga","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2361","DOI":"10.1021\/acschemneuro.0c00373","article-title":"Considerations around the SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein with Particular Attention to COVID-19 Brain Infection and Neurological Symptoms","volume":"11","author":"Hassanzadeh","year":"2020","journal-title":"ACS Chem. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e20202135","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20202135","article-title":"Neuroinvasion of SARS-CoV-2 in human and mouse brainNeuroinvasion of SARS-CoV-2 in humans and mice","volume":"218","author":"Song","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ng, J.-H., Sun, A., Je, H.S., and Tan, E.-K. (2021). Unravelling Pathophysiology of Neurological and Psychiatric Complications of COVID-19 Using Brain Organoids. Neuroscientist.","DOI":"10.1177\/10738584211015136"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13013","DOI":"10.1111\/bpa.13013","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 and the brain: A review of the current knowledge on neuropathology in COVID-19","volume":"31","author":"Maiese","year":"2021","journal-title":"Brain Pathol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"682","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapsychiatry.2021.0500","article-title":"How COVID-19 Affects the Brain","volume":"78","author":"Boldrini","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1186\/s13195-021-00850-3","article-title":"Network medicine links SARS-CoV-2\/COVID-19 infection to brain microvascular injury and neuroinflammation in dementia-like cognitive impairment","volume":"13","author":"Zhou","year":"2021","journal-title":"Alzheimer\u2019s Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4486","DOI":"10.1007\/s00415-021-10604-8","article-title":"Brainstem neuropathology in two cases of COVID-19: SARS-CoV-2 trafficking between brain and lung","volume":"268","author":"Bulfamante","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1039","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dsx.2021.04.026","article-title":"Cerebral venous thrombosis in COVID-19","volume":"15","author":"Ghosh","year":"2021","journal-title":"Diabetes Metab. Syndr. Clin. Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"636843","DOI":"10.3389\/fcvm.2021.636843","article-title":"Microvascular Angiopathic Consequences of COVID-19","volume":"8","author":"Nalugo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Cardiovasc. Med."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8076","DOI":"10.7150\/thno.61810","article-title":"Endothelial cell infection and dysfunction, immune activation in severe COVID-19","volume":"11","author":"Qin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Theranostics"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12654","DOI":"10.1111\/micc.12654","article-title":"Vascular endothelial injury exacerbates coronavirus disease 2019: The role of endothelial glycocalyx protection","volume":"28","author":"Okada","year":"2021","journal-title":"Microcirculation"},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"e14726","article-title":"SARS CoV-2 related microvascular damage and symptoms during and after COVID-19: Consequences of capillary transit-time changes, tissue hypoxia and inflammation","volume":"9","year":"2021","journal-title":"Physiol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3704","DOI":"10.1021\/acschemneuro.0c00676","article-title":"Seeding Brain Protein Aggregation by SARS-CoV-2 as a Possible Long-Term Complication of COVID-19 Infection","volume":"11","author":"Tavassoly","year":"2020","journal-title":"ACS Chem. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102799","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ebiom.2020.102799","article-title":"Infectivity of human coronavirus in the brain","volume":"56","author":"Cheng","year":"2020","journal-title":"EBioMedicine"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"564","DOI":"10.1007\/s12035-020-02152-5","article-title":"Multiple neuroinvasive pathways in COVID-19","volume":"58","author":"Bougakov","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"m3871","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.m3871","article-title":"Neuropsychiatric complications of COVID-19","volume":"371","author":"Butler","year":"2020","journal-title":"Br. Med. J. Publ."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tancheva, L., Petralia, M.C., Miteva, S., Dragomanova, S., Solak, A., Kalfin, R., Lazarova, M., Yarkov, D., Ciurleo, R., and Cavalli, E. (2020). Emerging Neurological and Psychobiological Aspects of COVID-19 Infection. Brain Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci10110852"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seizure.2020.05.005","article-title":"Seizures associated with coronavirus infections","volume":"79","year":"2020","journal-title":"Seizure"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"495","DOI":"10.1007\/s15010-015-0720-y","article-title":"Severe neurologic syndrome associated with Middle East respiratory syndrome corona virus (MERS-CoV)","volume":"43","author":"Arabi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Infection"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1177\/0145561320959573","article-title":"Dizziness and COVID-19","volume":"100","author":"Saniasiaya","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ear Nose Throat J."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"506","DOI":"10.21037\/atm.2020.03.89","article-title":"2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia with onset of dizziness: A case report","volume":"8","author":"Kong","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ann. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e227","DOI":"10.1161\/STROKEAHA.120.031265","article-title":"Cerebrovascular complications of COVID-19","volume":"51","author":"Katz","year":"2020","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"905","DOI":"10.1161\/STROKEAHA.120.031786","article-title":"Acute ischemic stroke and COVID-19: An analysis of 27 676 patients","volume":"52","author":"Qureshi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1159\/000513279","article-title":"Ischemic stroke in patients with COVID-19 disease: A report of 10 cases from Iran","volume":"50","author":"Karvigh","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cerebrovasc. Dis."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.1136\/neurintsurg-2020-016794","article-title":"Ischemic stroke in COVID-19-positive patients: An overview of SARS-CoV-2 and thrombotic mechanisms for the neurointerventionalist","volume":"13","author":"Zakeri","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. NeuroInterventional Surg."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"e10784","article-title":"COVID-19 and the brain: Acute encephalitis as a clinical manifestation","volume":"12","author":"Haider","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100275","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ensci.2020.100275","article-title":"Encephalopathy in COVID-19 patients; viral, parainfectious, or both?","volume":"21","author":"Umapathi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eneurologicalsci"},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Elkind, M.S., Cucchiara, B.L., Koralnik, I.J., Rabinstein, A.A., and Kasner, S.E. (2022, March 04). COVID-19: Neurologic Complications and Management of Neurologic Conditions. Available online: https:\/\/www.medilib.ir\/uptodate\/show\/128153."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2029540","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2020.29540","article-title":"Delirium in Older Patients With COVID-19 Presenting to the Emergency Department","volume":"3","author":"Kennedy","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA Netw. Open"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.neuropsych.20100251","article-title":"Etiologies of Delirium in Consecutive COVID-19 Inpatients and the Relationship Between Severity of Delirium and COVID-19 in a Prospective Study With Follow-Up","volume":"33","author":"Trzepacz","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Neuropsychiatry Clin. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"436","DOI":"10.1016\/j.medmal.2020.04.006","article-title":"Features of anosmia in COVID-19","volume":"50","author":"Klopfenstein","year":"2020","journal-title":"M\u00e9decine Mal. Infect."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1252","DOI":"10.1002\/hed.26204","article-title":"Objective evaluation of anosmia and ageusia in COVID-19 patients: Single-center experience on 72 cases","volume":"42","author":"Vaira","year":"2020","journal-title":"Head Neck"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01839","DOI":"10.1002\/brb3.1839","article-title":"Can symptoms of anosmia and dysgeusia be diagnostic for COVID-19?","volume":"10","author":"Zahra","year":"2020","journal-title":"Brain Behav."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1051\/irm\/2020003","article-title":"A new strategy for treatment of Anosmia and Ageusia in COVID-19 patients","volume":"1","author":"Hosseini","year":"2020","journal-title":"Integr. Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"624968","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2021.624968","article-title":"COVID-19 Dysautonomia","volume":"12","author":"Goodman","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amjms.2020.07.022","article-title":"Dysautonomia: An Overlooked Neurological Manifestation in a Critically ill COVID-19 Patient","volume":"360","author":"Eshak","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14042","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-93546-5","article-title":"Clinical characterization of dysautonomia in long COVID-19 patients","volume":"11","author":"Barizien","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"36","article-title":"COVID-19 Dysautonomia: An Important Component of \u201cLong-Hauler Syndrome\u201d","volume":"21","author":"Alyesh","year":"2021","journal-title":"EP Lab Dig."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.1111\/jon.12755","article-title":"Unusual microbleeds in brain MRI of COVID-19 patients","volume":"30","author":"Fitsiori","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Neuroimaging"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1177\/08465371211002815","article-title":"Neuroimaging Findings of Hospitalized COVID-19 Patients: A Canadian Retrospective Observational Study","volume":"73","author":"Jegatheeswaran","year":"2022","journal-title":"Can. Assoc. Radiol. J."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e239781","DOI":"10.1136\/bcr-2020-239781","article-title":"Treatment of unexplained coma and hypokinetic-rigid syndrome in a patient with COVID-19","volume":"14","author":"Roy","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMJ Case Rep."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3517","DOI":"10.1007\/s00415-021-10458-0","article-title":"Myoclonus and cerebellar ataxia associated with COVID-19: A case report and systematic review","volume":"268","author":"Chan","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1007\/s12028-020-01006-1","article-title":"Acute symptomatic seizures in critically ill patients with COVID-19: Is there an association?","volume":"34","author":"Hepburn","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neurocritical Care"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3822","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.0c02624","article-title":"Diagnosing COVID-19: The disease and tools for detection","volume":"14","author":"Udugama","year":"2020","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.1038\/s41593-020-00758-5","article-title":"Olfactory transmucosal SARS-CoV-2 invasion as a port of central nervous system entry in individuals with COVID-19","volume":"24","author":"Meinhardt","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102608","DOI":"10.1186\/s13073-021-00933-8","article-title":"Single-nucleus transcriptome analysis of human brain immune response in patients with severe COVID-19","volume":"13","author":"Fullard","year":"2021","journal-title":"Genome Med."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"520","DOI":"10.1007\/s12035-020-02134-7","article-title":"Neurological Complications Associated with the Blood-Brain Barrier Damage Induced by the Inflammatory Response During SARS-CoV-2 Infection","volume":"58","author":"Aguilera","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1177\/1753425920954281","article-title":"Immune response and blood\u2013brain barrier dysfunction during viral neuroinvasion","volume":"27","author":"Chen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Innate Immun."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"484","DOI":"10.1038\/d41586-021-01693-6","article-title":"COVID and the brain: Researchers zero in on how damage occurs","volume":"595","author":"Marshall","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"342","DOI":"10.1038\/d41586-020-02599-5","article-title":"How COVID-19 can damage the brain","volume":"585","author":"Marshall","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resuscitation.2020.11.040","article-title":"Myocardial injury in severe COVID-19: Identification and management","volume":"160","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Resuscitation"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-020-00374-6","article-title":"Human recombinant soluble ACE2 (hrsACE2) shows promise for treating severe COVID 19","volume":"5","author":"Mohamed","year":"2020","journal-title":"Signal Transduct. Target. Ther."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2020.04.044","article-title":"The COVID-19 Pandemic: Consideration for Brain Infection","volume":"437","author":"Mao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1002\/iid3.387","article-title":"Does COVID-19 contribute to development of neurological disease?","volume":"9","author":"Mahalakshmi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Immun. Inflamm. Dis."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1105","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciaa818","article-title":"COVID-19 and the Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System","volume":"72","author":"Naik","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_61","first-page":"2","article-title":"Neuropathology of COVID-19 (neuro-COVID): Clinicopathological update","volume":"2","author":"Lou","year":"2021","journal-title":"Free. Neuropathol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1089\/neu.2020.7332","article-title":"Blood Biomarkers for Detection of Brain Injury in COVID-19 Patients","volume":"38","author":"DeKosky","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Neurotrauma"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2137","DOI":"10.1007\/s42399-020-00522-7","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2, an Underestimated Pathogen of the Nervous System","volume":"2","author":"Jakhmola","year":"2020","journal-title":"SN Compr. Clin. Med."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"809","DOI":"10.1007\/s00401-021-02314-2","article-title":"The olfactory nerve is not a likely route to brain infection in COVID-19: A critical review of data from humans and animal models","volume":"141","author":"Butowt","year":"2021","journal-title":"Acta Neuropathol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"773","DOI":"10.1007\/s10072-020-04964-8","article-title":"Neurological manifestations of coronavirus disease 2019: Exploring past to understand present","volume":"42","author":"Desai","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neurol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"582932","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2020.582932","article-title":"Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19): Comprehensive Review of Clinical Presentation","volume":"8","author":"Mehta","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"968","DOI":"10.1002\/acn3.51348","article-title":"Brain dysfunction in COVID-19 and CAR-T therapy: Cytokine storm-associated encephalopathy","volume":"8","author":"Pensato","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ann. Clin. Transl. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118923","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lfs.2020.118923","article-title":"Targeting inflammatory cytokine storm to fight against COVID-19 associated severe complications","volume":"267","author":"Hirawat","year":"2021","journal-title":"Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1648","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.01648","article-title":"Cytokine Storm in COVID-19\u2014Immunopathological Mechanisms, Clinical Considerations, and Therapeutic Approaches: The REPROGRAM Consortium Position Paper","volume":"11","author":"Bhaskar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012055","DOI":"10.1088\/1742-6596\/1793\/1\/012055","article-title":"The Novel Coronavirus Causes Impairment of Blood Vessels and Respiratory System with Head-to-Toe Symptoms and Vaccine Development: An Overview","volume":"1793","author":"Jamil","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Phys. Conf. Ser."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-020-0354-x","article-title":"Blood clots and TAM receptor signalling in COVID-19 pathogenesis","volume":"20","author":"Lemke","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-021-00536-9","article-title":"Endothelial dysfunction and immunothrombosis as key pathogenic mechanisms in COVID-19","volume":"21","author":"Bonaventura","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"n1005","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.n1005","article-title":"COVID-19: Risk of cerebral blood clots from disease is 10 times that from vaccination, study finds","volume":"373","author":"Torjesen","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110371","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mehy.2020.110371","article-title":"Blood clots in COVID-19 patients: Simplifying the curious mystery","volume":"146","author":"Biswas","year":"2021","journal-title":"Med. Hypotheses"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Serrano, G.E., Walker, J.E., Arce, R., Glass, M.J., Vargas, D., Sue, L.I., Intorcia, A.J., Nelson, C.M., Oliver, J., and Papa, J. (2021). Mapping of SARS-CoV-2 Brain Invasion and Histopathology in COVID-19 Disease. medRxiv, medRxiv:2021.02.15.21251511.","DOI":"10.1101\/2021.02.15.21251511"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4641","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.96.15_supplement.4641","article-title":"Neuropathological Features of COVID-19 (4641)","volume":"96","author":"Normandin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"760","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaneurol.2021.0225","article-title":"Assessing Brain Capillaries in Coronavirus Disease 2019","volume":"78","author":"Nauen","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA Neurol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2159","DOI":"10.1021\/acschemneuro.0c00437","article-title":"Fragile Endothelium and Brain Dysregulated Neurochemical Activity in COVID-19","volume":"11","author":"Alharthy","year":"2020","journal-title":"ACS Chem. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135528","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neulet.2020.135528","article-title":"What can we learn from brain autopsies in COVID-19?","volume":"742","author":"Mukerji","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neurosci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"320","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)31305-2","article-title":"Histopathology and ultrastructural findings of fatal COVID-19 infections in Washington State: A case series","volume":"396","author":"Bradley","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_81","unstructured":"Thakur, K.T., Miller, E.H., Glendinning, M.D., Al-Dalahmah, O., Banu, M.A., Boehme, A.K., Boubour, A.L., Bruce, S.L., Chong, A.M., and Claassen, J. (2021). COVID-19 Neuropathology at Columbia University Irving Medical Center\/New York Presbyterian Hospital. medRxiv, medRxiv:2021.03.16.21253167."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2953","DOI":"10.1021\/acschemneuro.1c00467","article-title":"Brain Imaging in COVID-19","volume":"12","author":"Samkaria","year":"2021","journal-title":"ACS Chem. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mao, L., Wang, M., Chen, S., He, Q., Chang, J., Hong, C., Zhou, Y., Wang, D., Li, Y., and Jin, H. (2020). Neurological Manifestations of Hospitalized Patients with COVID-19 in Wuhan, China: A retrospective case series study. medRxiv, medRxiv:2020.02.22.20026500.","DOI":"10.1101\/2020.02.22.20026500"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2001","DOI":"10.3174\/ajnr.A6793","article-title":"Brain Imaging of Patients with COVID-19: Findings at an Academic Institution during the Height of the Outbreak in New York City","volume":"41","author":"Lin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Neuroradiol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1007\/s11920-021-01237-9","article-title":"Neuropsychiatric Complications of COVID-19","volume":"23","author":"Nakamura","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr. Psychiatry Rep."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1136\/svn-2020-000431","article-title":"Acute cerebrovascular disease following COVID-19: A single center, retrospective, observational study","volume":"5","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Stroke Vasc. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"875","DOI":"10.1016\/S2215-0366(20)30287-X","article-title":"Neurological and neuropsychiatric complications of COVID-19 in 153 patients: A UK-wide surveillance study","volume":"7","author":"Varatharaj","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e83","DOI":"10.1212\/CPJ.0000000000001031","article-title":"Neurologic Findings Among Inpatients With COVID-19 at a Safety-net US Hospital","volume":"11","author":"Anand","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neurol. Clin. Pract."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"458","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2020.11.005","article-title":"Neurologic manifestations associated with COVID-19: A multicentre registry","volume":"27","author":"Meppiel","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"632","DOI":"10.3174\/ajnr.A6966","article-title":"Clinical, Imaging, and Lab Correlates of Severe COVID-19 Leukoencephalopathy","volume":"42","author":"Rapalino","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Neuroradiol."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMc2033369","article-title":"Microvascular injury in the brains of patients with COVID-19","volume":"384","author":"Lee","year":"2021","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100098","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sintl.2021.100098","article-title":"Critical neurological features of COVID-19: Role of imaging methods and biosensors for effective diagnosis","volume":"2","author":"Singh","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sens. Int."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1016\/j.crad.2020.09.002","article-title":"COVID-19-related intracranial imaging findings: A large single-centre experience","volume":"76","author":"Sawlani","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Radiol."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2520","DOI":"10.1002\/lary.28964","article-title":"Mood, anxiety and olfactory dysfunction in COVID-19: Evidence of central nervous system involvement?","volume":"130","author":"Speth","year":"2020","journal-title":"Laryngoscope"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Boziki, M.K., Mentis, A.-F.A., Shumilina, M., Makshakov, G., Evdoshenko, E., and Grigoriadis, N. (2020). COVID-19 immunopathology and the central nervous system: Implication for multiple sclerosis and other autoimmune diseases with associated demyelination. Brain Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci10060345"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1667","DOI":"10.1007\/s10072-020-04486-3","article-title":"The neurological manifestations of COVID-19: A review article","volume":"41","author":"Niazkar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neurol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1384","DOI":"10.3174\/ajnr.A6651","article-title":"COVID-19 Neurologic Complication with CNS Vasculitis-Like Pattern","volume":"41","author":"Hanafi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Neuroradiol."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"995","DOI":"10.1021\/acschemneuro.0c00122","article-title":"Evidence of the COVID-19 Virus Targeting the CNS: Tissue Distribution, Host\u2013Virus Interaction, and Proposed Neurotropic Mechanisms","volume":"11","author":"Baig","year":"2020","journal-title":"ACS Chem. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1515\/revneuro-2020-0070","article-title":"CNS implications of COVID-19: A comprehensive review","volume":"32","author":"Nagu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3086","DOI":"10.1007\/s00415-020-10380-x","article-title":"Central and peripheral nervous system complications of COVID-19: A prospective tertiary center cohort with 3-month follow-up","volume":"268","author":"Nersesjan","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1007\/s11910-021-01102-5","article-title":"Peripheral Nervous System Manifestations Associated with COVID-19","volume":"21","author":"Andalib","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr. Neurol. Neurosci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1111\/jns.12482","article-title":"COVID-19 and the peripheral nervous system. A 2-year review from the pandemic to the vaccine era","volume":"27","author":"Taga","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Peripher. Nerv. Syst."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2316","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.26000","article-title":"Update on the neurology of COVID-19","volume":"92","author":"Finsterer","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"798","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-021-00543-w","article-title":"Autoantibodies in neurological disease","volume":"21","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2020.12.022","article-title":"High frequency of cerebrospinal fluid autoantibodies in COVID-19 patients with neurological symptoms","volume":"93","author":"Franke","year":"2021","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Immun."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1038\/d41586-021-00149-1","article-title":"Rogue antibodies could be driving severe COVID-19","volume":"590","author":"Khamsi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-021-03631-y","article-title":"Diverse functional autoantibodies in patients with COVID-19","volume":"595","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102754","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2021.102754","article-title":"Autoantibodies in COVID-19: Frequency and function","volume":"20","author":"Gao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Autoimmun. Rev."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100100","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtauto.2021.100100","article-title":"Functional autoantibodies against G-protein coupled receptors in patients with persistent Long-COVID-19 symptoms","volume":"4","author":"Wallukat","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Transl. Autoimmun."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2558","DOI":"10.1021\/acschemneuro.1c00403","article-title":"COVID-19 as a Trigger of Brain Autoimmunity","volume":"12","author":"Gupta","year":"2021","journal-title":"ACS Chem. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-020-00243-2","article-title":"COVID-19: Immunopathogenesis and Immunotherapeutics","volume":"5","author":"Yang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Signal Transduct. Target. Ther."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106455","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intimp.2020.106455","article-title":"The possible of immunotherapy for COVID-19: A systematic review","volume":"83","author":"AminJafari","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. Immunopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111518","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2021.111518","article-title":"Potential therapeutic agents to COVID-19: An update review on antiviral therapy, immunotherapy, and cell therapy","volume":"138","author":"Mirtaleb","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biomed. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-020-00459-7","article-title":"Characteristics of SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19","volume":"19","author":"Hu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nature Reviews Microbiology"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2100044","DOI":"10.1002\/adtp.202100044","article-title":"Promising Immunotherapies against COVID-19","volume":"4","author":"Guo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Adv. Ther."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1061","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.01061","article-title":"Interferon-\u03b12b Treatment for COVID-19","volume":"11","author":"Zhou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, B., Li, D., Liu, T., Wang, H., Luo, F., and Liu, Y. (2020). Subcutaneous injection of IFN alpha-2b for COVID-19: An observational study. BMC Infect. Dis., 20.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-020-05425-5"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"578","DOI":"10.1089\/jir.2020.0188","article-title":"Therapeutic Effectiveness of Interferon Alpha 2b Treatment for COVID-19 Patient Recovery","volume":"40","author":"Pereda","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Interferon Cytokine Res."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Idelsis, E.M.I., P\u00e9rez-Escribano, J., Duncan-Roberts, Y., Dania, V.B.D., Bequet-Romero, M., Baez-Rodr\u00edguez, L., Castro-R\u00edos, J., Cobas Cervantes, L., Pag\u00e9-Calvet, E., and Travieso-P\u00e9rez, S. (2020). Effect of combination of interferon alpha-2b and interferon-gamma or interferon alpha-2b alone for elimination of SARS-CoV-2 viral RNA. Preliminary results of a randomized controlled clinical trial. medRxiv, medRxiv:2020.07.29.20164251.","DOI":"10.1101\/2020.07.29.20164251"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1089\/vim.2020.0076","article-title":"Protective potentials of type III interferons in COVID-19 patients: Lessons from differential properties of type I-and III interferons","volume":"34","author":"Jafarzadeh","year":"2021","journal-title":"Viral Immunol."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1967","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-021-22177-1","article-title":"Peginterferon Lambda-1a for treatment of outpatients with uncomplicated COVID-19: A randomized placebo-controlled trial","volume":"12","author":"Jagannathan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20587384211031763","DOI":"10.1177\/20587384211031763","article-title":"The effectiveness of Colchicine as an anti-inflammatory drug in the treatment of coronavirus disease 2019: Meta-analysis","volume":"35","author":"Golpour","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Immunopathol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chiu, L., Chow, R., Chiu, N., Lo, C.-H., Aggarwal, R., Lee, J., Choi, Y.-G., Lam, H., Prsic, E.H., and Shin, H.J. (2021). Colchicine use in patients with COVID-19: A systematic review and meta-analysis. medRxiv, medRxiv:2021.02.02.21250960.","DOI":"10.1101\/2021.02.02.21250960"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amjcard.2021.02.005","article-title":"Meta-analysis of the Effect of Colchicine on Mortality and Mechanical Ventilation in COVID-19","volume":"145","author":"Salah","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"550","DOI":"10.1136\/annrheumdis-2020-219174","article-title":"Anti-inflammatory therapy for COVID-19 infection: The case for colchicine","volume":"80","author":"Reyes","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ann. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e001455","DOI":"10.1136\/rmdopen-2020-001455","article-title":"Beneficial effects of colchicine for moderate to severe COVID-19: A randomised, double-blinded, placebo-controlled clinical trial","volume":"7","author":"Lopes","year":"2021","journal-title":"RMD Open"},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2030340","article-title":"Tocilizumab in Patients Hospitalized with COVID-19 Pneumonia","volume":"384","author":"Salama","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1503","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2028700","article-title":"Tocilizumab in Hospitalized Patients with Severe COVID-19 Pneumonia","volume":"384","author":"Rosas","year":"2021","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e445","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciaa954","article-title":"Tocilizumab for Treatment of Mechanically Ventilated Patients With COVID-19","volume":"73","author":"Somers","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pulmoe.2020.07.003","article-title":"Rationale and evidence on the use of tocilizumab in COVID-19: A systematic review","volume":"27","author":"Cortegiani","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pulmonology"},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1620","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.26509","article-title":"Efficacy of tocilizumab in COVID-19: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"93","author":"Aziz","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1001\/jamainternmed.2020.6252","article-title":"Association Between Early Treatment With Tocilizumab and Mortality Among Critically Ill Patients with COVID-19","volume":"181","author":"Gupta","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_133","unstructured":"Liu, X., Li, Z., Liu, S., Chen, Z., Sun, J., Zhao, Z., Huang, Y.Y., Zhang, Q., Wang, J., and Shi, Y. (2020). Therapeutic effects of dipyridamole on COVID-19 patients with coagulation dysfunction. MedRxiv, medRxiv:10.1101\/2020.02.27.20027557v1."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"577","DOI":"10.1007\/s11055-021-01108-z","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) as a predictor of neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration: Potential treatment strategies","volume":"51","author":"Putilina","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neurosci. Behav. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.4103\/JMAU.JMAU_63_20","article-title":"COVID-19 and phosphodiesterase enzyme type 5 inhibitors","volume":"8","author":"Lugnier","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Microsc. Ultrastruct."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1004","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0040-1713152","article-title":"Pharmacological agents targeting thromboinflammation in COVID-19: Review and implications for future research","volume":"120","author":"Bikdeli","year":"2020","journal-title":"Thromb. Haemost."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"493","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2021.625836","article-title":"Vagus nerve stimulation: A potential adjunct therapy for COVID-19","volume":"8","author":"Azabou","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Med."},{"key":"ref_138","first-page":"393","article-title":"Non-invasive brain microcurrent stimulation therapy of long-COVID-19 reduces vascular dysregulation and improves visual and cognitive impairment","volume":"39","author":"Sabel","year":"2021","journal-title":"Restor. Neurol. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e62","DOI":"10.1097\/PHM.0000000000001936","article-title":"Use of the Modified Constraint Induced Movement Therapy Protocol to Improve Function of the Predominant Arm on a Patient With Incomplete Spinal Cord Injury","volume":"101","author":"Antoniadou","year":"2022","journal-title":"Am. J. Phys. Med. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1946","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajpath.2021.04.017","article-title":"Understanding the Role of Blood Vessels in the Neurologic Manifestations of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)","volume":"191","author":"Whitmore","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e18","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(22)00011-X","article-title":"The role of antiviral treatment in the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"10","author":"Burki","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Respir. Med."}],"container-title":["Biomolecules"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2218-273X\/12\/7\/971\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T23:48:19Z","timestamp":1760140099000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2218-273X\/12\/7\/971"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,11]]},"references-count":141,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,7]]}},"alternative-id":["biom12070971"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/biom12070971","relation":{},"ISSN":["2218-273X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2218-273X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,11]]}}}