{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,4]],"date-time":"2026-10-04T03:09:12Z","timestamp":1791083352889,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":74,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,24]],"date-time":"2023-12-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1703376000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100006360","name":"Deutsches Zentrum f\u00fcr Luft-und Raumfahrt (DLR), BMWK","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["50WB2219"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["50WB2219"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100006360","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100006360","name":"Deutsches Zentrum f\u00fcr Luft-und Raumfahrt (DLR), BMWK","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["50WK2270G"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["50WK2270G"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100006360","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biomolecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Over the last 30 years, the prevalence of osteoarthritis (OA), a disease characterized by a loss of articular cartilage, has more than doubled worldwide. Patients suffer from pain and progressive loss of joint function. Cartilage is an avascular tissue mostly consisting of extracellular matrix with embedded chondrocytes. As such, it does not regenerate naturally, which makes an early onset of OA prevention and treatment a necessity to sustain the patients\u2019 quality of life. In recent years, tissue engineering strategies for the regeneration of cartilage lesions have gained more and more momentum. In this study, we aimed to investigate the scaffold-free 3D cartilage tissue formation under simulated microgravity in the NASA-developed rotating wall vessel (RWV) bioreactor. For this purpose, we cultured both primary human chondrocytes as well as cells from the immortalized line C28\/I2 for up to 14 days on the RWV and analyzed tissue morphology, development of apoptosis, and expression of cartilage-specific proteins and genes by histological staining, TUNEL-assays, immunohistochemical detection of collagen species, and quantitative real-time PCR, respectively. We observed spheroid formation in both cell types starting on day 3. After 14 days, constructs from C28\/I2 cells had diameters of up to 5 mm, while primary chondrocyte spheroids were slightly smaller with 3 mm. Further inspection of the 14-day-old C28\/I2 spheroids revealed a characteristic cartilage morphology with collagen-type 1, -type 2, and -type 10 positivity. Interestingly, these tissues were less susceptible to RWV-induced differential gene expression than those formed from primary chondrocytes, which showed significant changes in the regulation of IL6, ACTB, TUBB, VIM, COL1A1, COL10A1, MMP1, MMP3, MMP13, ITGB1, LAMA1, RUNX3, SOX9, and CASP3 gene expression. These diverging findings might reflect the differences between primary and immortalized cells. Taken together, this study shows that simulated microgravity using the RWV bioreactor is suitable to engineer dense 3D cartilage-like tissue without addition of scaffolds or any other artificial materials. Both primary articular cells and the stable chondrocyte cell line C28\/I2 formed 3D neocartilage when exposed for 14 days to an RWV.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/biom14010025","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,24]],"date-time":"2023-12-24T20:44:15Z","timestamp":1703450655000},"page":"25","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":18,"title":["Structural and Molecular Changes of Human Chondrocytes Exposed to the Rotating Wall Vessel Bioreactor"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Paul","family":"Steinwerth","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microgravity and Translational Regenerative Medicine, University Clinic for Plastic, Aesthetic and Hand Surgery, Otto von Guericke University, 39106 Magdeburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9511-4999","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jessica","family":"Bertrand","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Otto-von-Guericke-University Magdeburg, 39120 Magdeburg, Germany"},{"name":"Research Group \u201cMagdeburger Arbeitsgemeinschaft f\u00fcr Forschung unter Raumfahrt-und Schwerelosigkeitsbedingungen\u201d (MARS), Otto von Guericke University, 39106 Magdeburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Viviann","family":"Sandt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microgravity and Translational Regenerative Medicine, University Clinic for Plastic, Aesthetic and Hand Surgery, Otto von Guericke University, 39106 Magdeburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shannon","family":"Marchal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microgravity and Translational Regenerative Medicine, University Clinic for Plastic, Aesthetic and Hand Surgery, Otto von Guericke University, 39106 Magdeburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jayashree","family":"Sahana","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Ole Worms All\u00e9 4, 8000 Aarhus, Denmark"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Miriam","family":"Bollmann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Otto-von-Guericke-University Magdeburg, 39120 Magdeburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0226-964X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Herbert","family":"Schulz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microgravity and Translational Regenerative Medicine, University Clinic for Plastic, Aesthetic and Hand Surgery, Otto von Guericke University, 39106 Magdeburg, Germany"},{"name":"Research Group \u201cMagdeburger Arbeitsgemeinschaft f\u00fcr Forschung unter Raumfahrt-und Schwerelosigkeitsbedingungen\u201d (MARS), Otto von Guericke University, 39106 Magdeburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5829-6455","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sascha","family":"Kopp","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Group \u201cMagdeburger Arbeitsgemeinschaft f\u00fcr Forschung unter Raumfahrt-und Schwerelosigkeitsbedingungen\u201d (MARS), Otto von Guericke University, 39106 Magdeburg, Germany"},{"name":"Core Facility Tissue Engineering, Otto von Guericke University, 39106 Magdeburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4991-3105","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Daniela","family":"Grimm","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microgravity and Translational Regenerative Medicine, University Clinic for Plastic, Aesthetic and Hand Surgery, Otto von Guericke University, 39106 Magdeburg, Germany"},{"name":"Research Group \u201cMagdeburger Arbeitsgemeinschaft f\u00fcr Forschung unter Raumfahrt-und Schwerelosigkeitsbedingungen\u201d (MARS), Otto von Guericke University, 39106 Magdeburg, Germany"},{"name":"Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Ole Worms All\u00e9 4, 8000 Aarhus, Denmark"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8160-859X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Markus","family":"Wehland","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microgravity and Translational Regenerative Medicine, University Clinic for Plastic, Aesthetic and Hand Surgery, Otto von Guericke University, 39106 Magdeburg, Germany"},{"name":"Research Group \u201cMagdeburger Arbeitsgemeinschaft f\u00fcr Forschung unter Raumfahrt-und Schwerelosigkeitsbedingungen\u201d (MARS), Otto von Guericke University, 39106 Magdeburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"GBD 2019 (2023, May 05). 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