{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,9]],"date-time":"2026-10-09T14:44:42Z","timestamp":1791557082834,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":218,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,6]],"date-time":"2024-09-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1725580800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000646","name":"Japan Society for the Promotion of Science","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["23K06986"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["23K06986"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000646","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000646","name":"Japan Society for the Promotion of Science","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["24K10730"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["24K10730"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000646","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biomolecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>For several decades, the dopamine hypothesis contributed to the discovery of numerous typical and atypical antipsychotics and was the sole hypothesis for the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. However, neither typical nor atypical antipsychotics, other than clozapine, have been effective in addressing negative symptoms and cognitive impairments, which are indices for the prognostic and disability outcomes of schizophrenia. Following the development of atypical antipsychotics, the therapeutic targets for antipsychotics expanded beyond the blockade of dopamine D2 and serotonin 5-HT2A receptors to explore the partial agonism of the D2 receptor and the modulation of new targets, such as D3, 5-HT1A, 5-HT7, and metabotropic glutamate receptors. Despite these efforts, to date, psychiatry has not successfully developed antipsychotics with antipsychotic properties proven to be superior to those of clozapine. The glutamate hypothesis, another hypothesis regarding the pathophysiology\/pathomechanism of schizophrenia, was proposed based on clinical findings that N-methyl-D-aspartate glutamate receptor (NMDAR) antagonists, such as phencyclidine and ketamine, induce schizophrenia-like psychotic episodes. Large-scale genome-wide association studies (GWASs) revealed that approximately 30% of the risk genes for schizophrenia (the total number was over one hundred) encode proteins associated with glutamatergic transmission. These findings supported the validation of the glutamate hypothesis, which was inspired by the clinical findings regarding NMDAR antagonists. Additionally, these clinical and genetic findings suggest that schizophrenia is possibly a syndrome with complicated pathomechanisms that are affected by multiple biological and genetic vulnerabilities. The glutamate hypothesis has been the most extensively investigated pathophysiology\/pathomechanism hypothesis, other than the dopamine hypothesis. Studies have revealed the possibility that functional abnormalities of the NMDAR play important roles in the pathophysiology\/pathomechanism of schizophrenia. However, no antipsychotics derived from the glutamatergic hypothesis have yet been approved for the treatment of schizophrenia or treatment-resistant schizophrenia. Considering the increasing evidence supporting the potential pro-cognitive effects of glutamatergic agents and the lack of sufficient medications to treat the cognitive impairments associated with schizophrenia, these previous setbacks cannot preclude research into potential novel glutamate modulators. Given this background, to emphasize the importance of the dysfunction of the NMDAR in the pathomechanism and\/or pathophysiology of schizophrenia, this review introduces the increasing findings on the functional abnormalities in glutamatergic transmission associated with the NMDAR.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/biom14091128","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,6]],"date-time":"2024-09-06T03:22:46Z","timestamp":1725592966000},"page":"1128","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":33,"title":["Dysfunction of the NMDA Receptor in the Pathophysiology of Schizophrenia and\/or the Pathomechanisms of Treatment-Resistant Schizophrenia"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Ruri","family":"Okubo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neuropsychiatry, Division of Neuroscience, Graduate School of Medicine, Mie University, Tsu 514-8507, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9025-2548","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Motohiro","family":"Okada","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neuropsychiatry, Division of Neuroscience, Graduate School of Medicine, Mie University, Tsu 514-8507, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Eishi","family":"Motomura","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neuropsychiatry, Division of Neuroscience, Graduate School of Medicine, Mie University, Tsu 514-8507, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"GBD 2019 Mental Disorders Collaborators (2022). 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