{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,24]],"date-time":"2026-10-24T00:57:09Z","timestamp":1792803429861,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":182,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,10]],"date-time":"2024-10-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1728518400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Orland Bethel Funds from the University of Pittsburgh","id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01an3r305","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biomolecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Hypertrophy of the ligamentum flavum (HLF) is a common contributor to lumbar spinal stenosis (LSS). Fibrosis is a core pathological factor of HLF resulting in degenerative LSS and associated low back pain. Although progress has been made in HLF research, the specific molecular mechanisms that promote HLF remain to be defined. The molecular factors involved in the onset of HLF include increases in inflammatory cytokines such as transforming growth factor (TGF)-\u03b2, matrix metalloproteinases, and pro-fibrotic growth factors. In this review, we discuss the current understanding of the mechanisms involved in HLF with a particular emphasis on aging and mechanical stress. We also discuss in detail how several pathomechanisms such as fibrosis, proliferation and apoptosis, macrophage infiltration, and autophagy, in addition to several molecular pathways involving TGF-\u03b21, mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPKs), and nuclear factor-\u03baB (NF-\u03baB) signaling, PI3K\/AKT signaling, Wnt signaling, micro-RNAs, extracellular matrix proteins, reactive oxygen species (ROS), etc. are involved in fibrosis leading to HLF. We also present a summary of the current advancements in preclinical animal models for HLF research. In addition, we update the current and potential therapeutic targets\/agents against HLF. An improved understanding of the molecular processes behind HLF and a novel animal model are key to developing effective LSS prevention and treatment strategies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/biom14101277","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,10]],"date-time":"2024-10-10T07:53:05Z","timestamp":1728546785000},"page":"1277","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":24,"title":["Cellular and Molecular Mechanisms of Hypertrophy of Ligamentum Flavum"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8332-024X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Prashanta","family":"Silwal","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Ferguson Laboratory for Spine Research, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15219, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-5740-8255","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Allison M.","family":"Nguyen-Thai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ferguson Laboratory for Spine Research, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15219, USA"},{"name":"Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Peter G.","family":"Alexander","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ferguson Laboratory for Spine Research, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15219, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gwendolyn A.","family":"Sowa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ferguson Laboratory for Spine Research, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15219, USA"},{"name":"Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of Pittsburgh Medical Cancer, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nam V.","family":"Vo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ferguson Laboratory for Spine Research, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15219, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Joon Y.","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ferguson Laboratory for Spine Research, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15219, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jocn.2019.07.015","article-title":"Comparative morphometric analysis of congenital and acquired lumbar spinal stenosis","volume":"68","author":"Akar","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. 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