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Water kefir and kefiran could be alternatives to milk kefir for their application in persons with lactose intolerance or milk allergy and could be incorporated into vegan diets. Using mice models, this work demonstrated that the oral administration of water kefir or kefiran can modulate the respiratory Toll-like receptor (TLR3)-mediated innate antiviral immunity and improve the resistance to respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection. The treatment of mice with water kefir or kefiran for 6 days improved the production of interferons (IFN-\u03b2 and IFN-\u03b3) and antiviral factors (Mx2, OAS1, RNAseL, and IFITM3) in the respiratory tract after the activation of the TLR3 signaling pathway, differentially modulated the balance of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines, reduced RSV replication, and diminished lung tissue damage. Maintaining a proper balance between anti-inflammatory and pro-inflammatory mediators is vital for ensuring an effective and safe antiviral immune response, and the results of this work show that water kefir and kefiran would help to maintain that balance promoting a controlled inflammatory response that defends against infection while minimizing tissue damage.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/biom14111457","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,18]],"date-time":"2024-11-18T05:36:45Z","timestamp":1731908205000},"page":"1457","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Modulation of the Gut\u2013Lung Axis by Water Kefir and Kefiran and Their Impact on Toll-like Receptor 3-Mediated Respiratory Immunity"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1371-0688","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stefania","family":"Dentice 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Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, Sendai 980-8572, Japan"},{"name":"Livestock Immunology Unit, International Education and Research Centre for Food and Agricultural Immunology (CFAI), Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, Sendai 980-8572, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yoshiya","family":"Imamura","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Food and Feed Immunology Group, Laboratory of Animal Food Function, Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, Sendai 980-8572, Japan"},{"name":"Livestock Immunology Unit, International Education and Research Centre for Food and Agricultural Immunology (CFAI), Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, Sendai 980-8572, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Luciano","family":"Arellano-Arriagada","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Food and Feed Immunology Group, Laboratory of Animal Food Function, Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, Sendai 980-8572, Japan"},{"name":"Livestock Immunology Unit, International Education and Research Centre for Food and Agricultural Immunology (CFAI), Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, Sendai 980-8572, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fu","family":"Namai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Food and Feed Immunology Group, Laboratory of Animal Food Function, Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, Sendai 980-8572, Japan"},{"name":"Livestock Immunology Unit, International Education and Research Centre for Food and Agricultural Immunology (CFAI), Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, Sendai 980-8572, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yoshihito","family":"Suda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Food, Agriculture and Environment, Miyagi University, 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