{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,7]],"date-time":"2026-11-07T05:29:26Z","timestamp":1794029366876,"version":"4.8.0"},"reference-count":107,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,22]],"date-time":"2025-01-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1737504000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biomolecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Early life adversity (ELA) has long been recognized to negatively impact a variety of health outcomes, with increasingly recognized long-term implications for neurocognitive function. ELA may affect the brain through multiple mechanisms, including chronic inflammation. One potential moderator of the pathway from ELA to neuroinflammation to cognitive dysfunction is sex. ELA may leave females potentially even more vulnerable to cognitive impairment in later life. This review discusses the influence of ELA on cognitive function across much of the lifespan, how inflammation is implicated in this process, and the current state of knowledge regarding sex differences in these relationships. We conclude with a discussion of unanswered questions and suggestions for future research, including the incorporation of genetic data.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/biom15020161","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,22]],"date-time":"2025-01-22T03:40:17Z","timestamp":1737517217000},"page":"161","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":18,"title":["Sex Differences in the Associations Among Early Life Adversity, Inflammation, and Cognition"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Erin","family":"Logue","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Mulva Clinic for Neurosciences, The University of Texas at Austin Dell Medical School, Austin, TX 78712, USA"},{"name":"Department of Neurology, Mulva Clinic for Neurosciences, The University of Texas at Austin Dell Medical School, Austin, TX 78712, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7867-1160","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Charles B.","family":"Nemeroff","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Mulva Clinic for Neurosciences, The University of Texas at Austin Dell Medical School, Austin, TX 78712, USA"},{"name":"Institute for Early Life Adversity, The University of Texas at Austin Dell Medical School, Austin, TX 78712, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1016\/S0749-3797(98)00017-8","article-title":"Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults. The Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) Study","volume":"14","author":"Ferlitti","year":"1998","journal-title":"Am. J. Prev. Med."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1038\/s41390-020-01264-x","article-title":"The social ecology of childhood and early life adversity","volume":"89","author":"Lopez","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pediatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"(2024, October 15). Adverse childhood Experiences International Questionnaire (ACE-IQ). Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/publications\/m\/item\/adverse-childhood-experiences-international-questionnaire-(ace-iq)."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"(2024, October 15). Violence Prevention, Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/violenceprevention\/aces\/ace-brfss.html."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"892","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2016.01.019","article-title":"Paradise lost: The neurobiological and clinical consequences of child abuse and neglect","volume":"89","author":"Nemeroff","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e356","DOI":"10.1016\/S2468-2667(17)30118-4","article-title":"The effect of multiple adverse childhood experiences on health: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"2","author":"Hughes","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet Public Health"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lippard, E.T.C., and Nemeroff, C.B. (2022). Going beyond risk factor: Childhood maltreatment and associated modifiable targets to improve life-long outcomes in mood disorders. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav., 215.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pbb.2022.173361"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.1080\/21622965.2015.1079712","article-title":"Neurocognitive deficits in children and adolescents following maltreatment: Neurodevelopmental consequences and neuropsychological implications of traumatic stress","volume":"6","author":"Kavanaugh","year":"2017","journal-title":"Appl. Neuropsychol. Child."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104485","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chiabu.2020.104485","article-title":"Adverse childhood experiences and executive function difficulties in children: A systematic review","volume":"106","author":"Lund","year":"2020","journal-title":"Child Abus. Negl."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2016.11.004","article-title":"Neuropsychological functioning of childhood trauma and post-traumatic stress disorder: A meta-analysis","volume":"72","author":"Malarbi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"573","DOI":"10.1080\/13854046.2015.1061057","article-title":"Neuropsychological profile of children, adolescents and adults experiencing maltreatment: A meta-analysis","volume":"29","author":"Masson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2743","DOI":"10.1177\/15248380221111484","article-title":"Cognitive outcomes of children with complex trauma: A systematic review and meta-analyses of longitudinal studies","volume":"24","year":"2023","journal-title":"Trauma Violence Abus."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1450595","DOI":"10.1080\/20008198.2018.1450595","article-title":"Executive functions in trauma-exposed youth: A meta-analysis","volume":"9","author":"Geurts","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur. J. Psychotraumatol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"278","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2019.04.026","article-title":"How does childhood maltreatment influence ensuing cognitive functioning among people with the exposure of childhood maltreatment? A systematic review of prospective cohort studies","volume":"252","author":"Su","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1063","DOI":"10.1007\/s10802-007-9155-y","article-title":"Scholastic attainment following severe early institutional deprivation: A study of children adopted from Romania","volume":"35","author":"Beckett","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Abnorm. Child Psychol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.3389\/neuro.08.016.2009","article-title":"Effects of early psychosocial deprivation on the development of memory and executive function","volume":"3","author":"Bos","year":"2009","journal-title":"Front. Behav. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"868","DOI":"10.1017\/S1355617709990464","article-title":"Neuropsychological findings in childhood neglect and their relationships to pediatric PTSD","volume":"15","author":"Hooper","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-8624.2009.01391.x","article-title":"Neurodevelopmental effects of early deprivation in postinstitutionalized children","volume":"81","author":"Pollak","year":"2010","journal-title":"Child Dev."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.4236\/psych.2012.32026","article-title":"The effects of early neglect on cognitive, language, and behavioral functioning in childhood","volume":"3","author":"Spratt","year":"2012","journal-title":"Psychology"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1177\/1077559515616703","article-title":"Language problems among abused and neglected children: A meta-analytic review","volume":"21","author":"Sylvestre","year":"2016","journal-title":"Child Maltreat."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e212511","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapediatrics.2021.2511","article-title":"Associations of early-life threat and deprivation with executive functioning in childhood and adolescence: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"175","author":"Johnson","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajp.2016.16030333","article-title":"The origins of cognitive deficits in victimized children: Implications for neuroscientists and clinicians","volume":"174","author":"Danese","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"952","DOI":"10.1111\/jcpp.13757","article-title":"Childhood mental health difficulties mediate the long-term association between early-life adversity at age 3 and poorer cognitive functioning at ages 11 and 14","volume":"64","author":"Nweze","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115448","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2022.115448","article-title":"A life course approach to understanding stress exposures and cognitive function among middleaged and older adults","volume":"314","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Soc. Sci. Med."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1029","DOI":"10.1017\/S1355617721001272","article-title":"Are adverse childhood experiences associated with worse cognitive function in older adults?","volume":"28","author":"Halpin","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105008","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chiabu.2021.105008","article-title":"Adverse childhood events and cognitive function among young adults: Prospective results from the national longitudinal study of adolescent to adult health","volume":"115","author":"Hawkins","year":"2021","journal-title":"Child Abuse Negl."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2022.02.062","article-title":"The association between adverse childhood events and later-life cognitive function and dementia risk","volume":"304","author":"Nilaweera","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"K\u00fcnzi, M., Sieber, S., Joly-Burra, E., Sieber, R., Nef, R., Moor, C., Zeller, A., Bichsel, L., Sturm, A., and Schlatter, C. (2023). Adversity specificity and life period exposure on cognitive aging. Sci. Rep., 13.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-35855-5"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"884","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2022.12.058","article-title":"Adverse childhood experiences and their impacts on subsequent depression and cognitive impairment in Chinese adults: A nationwide multi-center study","volume":"323","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1177\/1077559520970647","article-title":"Childhood abuse and cognitive function in a large cohort of middle-aged women","volume":"27","author":"Roberts","year":"2022","journal-title":"Child Maltreat."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"735","DOI":"10.1002\/jts.21861","article-title":"Cognitive function is preserved in older adults with a reported history of childhood sexual abuse","volume":"26","author":"Feeney","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Trauma Stress"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1176\/jnp.18.1.45","article-title":"Effects of childhood sexual abuse on neuropsychological and cognitive function in college women","volume":"18","author":"Navalta","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Neuropsychiatry Clin. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1118","DOI":"10.1093\/arclin\/acac013","article-title":"A systematic review of childhood adversity and executive functions outcomes among adults","volume":"37","author":"Lund","year":"2022","journal-title":"Arch. Clin. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8728","DOI":"10.1080\/10408398.2021.1932721","article-title":"Food insecurity and brain health in adults: A systematic review","volume":"62","author":"McMichael","year":"2021","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"1139","article-title":"Adverse childhood experiences, cognitive functioning, depression, and anxiety in adulthood","volume":"16","author":"Stocks","year":"2024","journal-title":"Psychol. Trauma"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1325","DOI":"10.1017\/S1041610219001583","article-title":"An investigation into early-life stress and cognitive function in older age","volume":"32","author":"Grainger","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. Psychogeriatr."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Montoya-Arenas, D.A., Londo\u00f1o-Guzm\u00e1n, D., Franco, J.G., and Gaviria, A.M. (2022). Effect of exposure to socio-political violence and abuse during childhood on executive planning in adult life. Front. Psychiatry, 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2021.693741"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tjoelker, F.M., Jeuring, H.W., Aprahamian, I., Heeren, T.J., and Comijs, H.C. (2022). The impact of a history of child abuse on cognitive performance: A cross-sectional study in older patients with a depressive, anxiety, or somatic symptom disorder. BMC Geriatr., 22.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12877-022-03068-6"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"688","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2021.09.051","article-title":"Promoting brain health through physical activity among adults exposed to early life adversity: Potential mechanisms and theoretical framework","volume":"131","author":"Donofry","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"922","DOI":"10.1136\/adc.2003.032490","article-title":"Long term effects of early adversity on cognitive function","volume":"89","author":"Richards","year":"2004","journal-title":"Arch. Dis. Child"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wolfova, K., Csajbok, Z., Kagstrom, A., K\u00e5reholt, I., and Cermakova, P. (2021). Role of sex in the association between childhood socioeconomic position and cognitive ageing in later life. Sci. Rep., 11.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-84022-1"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lakkireddy, S.P., Balachander, S., Dayalamurthy, P., Jayarajan, R., Rangarajan, V., Karthik, S., and Rao, N.P. (2022). Neurocognition and its association with adverse childhood experiences and familial risk of mental illness. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry, 119.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pnpbp.2022.110620"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ma, J., Yang, Y., Wan, Y., Shen, C., and Qiu, P. (2021). The influence of childhood adversities on mid to late cognitive function: From the perspective of life course. PLoS ONE, 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0256297"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sun, Y., Qu, S., Li, Z., Zhang, W., Meng, Y., Fang, J., Shi, S., Zhu, S., Liu, N., and Song, H. (2024). The mediating role of frequent mental distress in the relationship between adverse childhood experiences and cognitive disability in emerging adults. Sci. Rep., 14.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-79813-1"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, G., Zhou, Y., Duan, J., Kan, Q., Cheng, Z., and Tang, S. (2023). Effects of adverse childhood health experiences on cognitive function in Chinese middle-aged and older adults: Mediating role of depression. BMC Public Health, 23.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-023-16169-7"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2241714","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2022.41714","article-title":"Association of adverse childhood experiences and social isolation with later-life cognitive function among adults in China","volume":"5","author":"Lin","year":"2022","journal-title":"JAMA Netw. Open"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1294","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwab019","article-title":"Adverse childhood experiences and rate of memory decline from mid to later life: Evidence from the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing","volume":"190","author":"Demakakos","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1177\/0891988714522696","article-title":"Adverse childhood and recent negative life events: Contrasting associations with cognitive decline in older persons","volume":"27","author":"Korten","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Geriatr. Psychiatry Neurol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hayes-Larson, E., Gradwohl, N.M., Fong, J., Kobayashi, L.C., Gilsanz, P., Whitmer, R.A., Glymour, M.M., Barnes, L.L., Koenen, K.C., and DeCarli, C. (2024). Childhood adversity and late-life cognitive and brain health in a diverse cohort. Alzheimers Dement., epub ahead of print.","DOI":"10.1002\/alz.14388"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e072961","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2023-072961","article-title":"What is the association between adverse childhood experiences and late-life cognitive decline? Study of Healthy Aging in African Americans (STAR) cohort study","volume":"13","author":"Lor","year":"2023","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1186\/s40035-023-00355-z","article-title":"Early life adversity as a risk factor for cognitive impairment and Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"12","author":"Huang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Transl. Neurodegener."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"783","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2006.02.015","article-title":"Pathogen recognition and innate immunity","volume":"124","author":"Akira","year":"2006","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"768","DOI":"10.1016\/j.it.2017.08.002","article-title":"Exosomes, DAMPs and miRNA: Features of stress physiology and immune homeostasis","volume":"38","author":"Fleshner","year":"2017","journal-title":"Trends Immunol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"752","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2024.03.002","article-title":"DAMPs and DAMP-sensing receptors in inflammation and diseases","volume":"57","author":"Ma","year":"2024","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.1038\/ni.3123","article-title":"Control of adaptive immunity by the innate immune system","volume":"16","author":"Iwasaki","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"374","DOI":"10.1038\/nrendo.2009.106","article-title":"Stress and disorders of the stress system","volume":"5","author":"Chrousos","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1038\/nri.2017.1","article-title":"Immune regulation by glucocorticoids","volume":"17","author":"Cain","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5995","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1118355109","article-title":"Chronic stress, glucocorticoid receptor resistance, inflammation, and disease risk","volume":"109","author":"Cohen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.1999.79.1.1","article-title":"Regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis by cytokines: Actions and mechanisms of action","volume":"79","author":"Turnbull","year":"1999","journal-title":"Physiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.psych.58.110405.085605","article-title":"The neurobiology of stress and development","volume":"58","author":"Gunnar","year":"2007","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.2012.06633.x","article-title":"Glucocorticoid regulation of inflammation and its functional correlates: From HPA axis to glucocorticoid receptor dysfunction","volume":"1261","author":"Silverman","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"ii6","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/kew348","article-title":"Glucocorticoids and chronic inflammation","volume":"55","author":"Straub","year":"2016","journal-title":"Rheumatology"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"188","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psyneuen.2012.05.013","article-title":"Childhood adversity and inflammatory processes in youth: A prospective study","volume":"38","author":"Slopen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Psychoneuroendocrinology"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2019.04.028","article-title":"Early life adversity exposure and circulating markers of inflammation in children and adolescents: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"86","author":"Kuhlman","year":"2020","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Immun."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"642","DOI":"10.1038\/mp.2015.67","article-title":"Childhood trauma and adulthood inflammation: A meta-analysis of peripheral C-reactive protein, interleukin-6 and tumour necrosis factor-\u03b1","volume":"21","author":"Baumeister","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brown, M., Worrell, C., and Pariante, C.M. (2021). Inflammation and early life stress: An updated review of childhood trauma and inflammatory markers in adulthood. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav., 211.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pbb.2021.173291"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1080\/19485565.2017.1281099","article-title":"Family member deaths in childhood predict systemic inflammation in late life","volume":"63","author":"Norton","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biodemogr. Soc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1111\/jcpp.12804","article-title":"Peer victimization predicts heightened inflammatory reactivity to social stress in cognitively vulnerable adolescents","volume":"59","author":"Giletta","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1540","DOI":"10.1089\/jwh.2019.7779","article-title":"Association of childhood trauma exposure with inflammatory biomarkers among midlife women","volume":"29","author":"Nguyen","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Womens Health"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1440","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2021.09.022","article-title":"Physical abuse during childhood predicts IL-2R levels in adult panic disorder patients","volume":"295","author":"Quagliato","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2995","DOI":"10.1038\/s41380-023-02086-z","article-title":"The interplay between sexual abuse and inflammation, oxidative stress, and DNA damage in drug-na\u00efve panic disorder patients","volume":"28","author":"Quagliato","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104628","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psyneuen.2020.104628","article-title":"Community violence and cellular and cytokine indicators of inflammation in adolescents","volume":"115","author":"Finegood","year":"2020","journal-title":"Psychoneuroendocrinology"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1553","DOI":"10.1038\/s41390-023-02992-6","article-title":"Associations between social adversity and biomarkers of inflammation, stress, and aging in children","volume":"95","author":"Pantell","year":"2024","journal-title":"Pediatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"887","DOI":"10.1002\/dev.21329","article-title":"Early adversity, neural development, and inflammation","volume":"57","author":"Chiang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Dev. Psychobiol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1097\/HRP.0000000000000325","article-title":"Neuroinflammation, early-life adversity, and brain development","volume":"30","author":"Andersen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Harv. Rev. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pnpbp.2012.12.013","article-title":"Is there an association between peripheral immune markers and structural\/functional neuroimaging findings?","volume":"48","author":"Frodl","year":"2014","journal-title":"Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1850","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psyneuen.2013.06.007","article-title":"Enduring psychobiological effects of childhood adversity","volume":"38","author":"Ehlert","year":"2013","journal-title":"Psychoneuroendocrinology"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/S0149-7634(03)00007-1","article-title":"The neurobiological consequences of early stress and childhood maltreatment","volume":"27","author":"Teicher","year":"2003","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Packard, C.J., Bezlyak, V., McLean, J.S., Batty, G.D., Ford, I., Burns, H., Cavanagh, J., Deans, K.A., Henderson, M., and McGinty, A. (2011). Early life socioeconomic adversity is associated in adult life with chronic inflammation, carotid atherosclerosis, poorer lung function and decreased cognitive performance: A cross-sectional, population-based study. BMC Public Health, 11.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2458-11-42"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1093\/abm\/kay014","article-title":"Interleukin-6 and Depressive Mood Symptoms: Mediators of the Association Between Childhood Abuse and Cognitive Performance in Middle-Aged Adults","volume":"53","author":"Davis","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ann. Behav. Med."},{"key":"ref_81","first-page":"105761","article-title":"The mediating role of allostatic load in the relationship between early life adversity and cognitive function across the adult lifespan","volume":"141","author":"Amestoy","year":"2022","journal-title":"Can. J. Aging"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2367","DOI":"10.1007\/s00127-022-02315-w","article-title":"Adverse childhood experiences and cognitive function in adulthood: Examining the roles of depressive symptoms and inflammation in a prospective cohort study","volume":"57","author":"Lowry","year":"2022","journal-title":"Soc. Psychiatry Psychiatr. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_83","first-page":"301","article-title":"The effect of childhood trauma on spatial cognition in adults: A possible role of sex","volume":"29","author":"Syal","year":"2014","journal-title":"Metab. Brain Dis."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"435","DOI":"10.1037\/tra0000356","article-title":"An examination of sex differences on neurocognitive functioning and behavior problems in maltreated youth","volume":"10","author":"Nooner","year":"2018","journal-title":"Psychol. Trauma"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"420","DOI":"10.1037\/0893-3200.22.3.420","article-title":"Intimate partner violence and preschoolers\u2019 explicit memory functioning","volume":"22","author":"Jouriles","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Fam. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"336","DOI":"10.1503\/jpn.140211","article-title":"Childhood abuse and neglect may induce deficits in cognitive precursors of psychosis in high-risk children","volume":"40","author":"Berthelot","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Psychiatry Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"688","DOI":"10.1111\/desc.12082","article-title":"Childhood poverty, chronic stress, and young adult working memory: The protective role of self-regulatory capacity","volume":"16","author":"Evans","year":"2013","journal-title":"Dev. Sci."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"737","DOI":"10.1038\/nri2394","article-title":"The X-files in immunity: Sex-based differences predispose immune responses","volume":"8","author":"Fish","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yfrne.2014.04.004","article-title":"Gender differences in autoimmune disease","volume":"35","author":"Ngo","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Neuroendocrinol."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1299","DOI":"10.2741\/e190","article-title":"Changes in the immune system during menopause and aging","volume":"2","author":"Gameiro","year":"2010","journal-title":"Front. Biosci. (Elite Ed.)"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Harding, A.T., and Heaton, N.S. (2022). The impact of estrogens and their receptors on immunity and inflammation during infection. Cancers, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers14040909"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2017.08.025","article-title":"Childhood victimization and inflammation in young adulthood: A genetically sensitive cohort study","volume":"67","author":"Baldwin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Immun."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"432","DOI":"10.1002\/smi.2871","article-title":"Adverse childhood experiences and neuroinflammatory biomarkers-The role of sex","volume":"35","author":"Kim","year":"2019","journal-title":"Stress Health"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-010-2009-2","article-title":"Effects of early life stress on cognitive and affective function: An integrated review of human literature","volume":"214","author":"Pechtel","year":"2011","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1359","DOI":"10.1017\/S0954579413000667","article-title":"Stress physiology and developmental psychopathology: Past, present, and future","volume":"25","author":"Doom","year":"2013","journal-title":"Dev. Psychopathol."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-444-64123-6.00008-4","article-title":"Sex differences in cognition and aging and the influence of sex hormones","volume":"175","author":"Gurvich","year":"2020","journal-title":"Handb. Clin. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2019.04.028","article-title":"Sex differences in vulnerability and resilience to stress across the life span","volume":"86","author":"Hodes","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"434","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn2639","article-title":"Effects of stress throughout the lifespan on the brain, behaviour and cognition","volume":"10","author":"Lupien","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsbmb.2016.03.012","article-title":"Age, APOE and sex: Triad of risk of Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"160","author":"Riedel","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1007\/s13365-018-0700-y","article-title":"Childhood trauma interacts with ApoE to influence neurocognitive function in women living with HIV","volume":"25","author":"Womersley","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. NeuroVirol."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kloske, C.M., and Wilcock, D.M. (2020). The important interface between apolipoprotein E and neuroinflammation in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease. Front. Immunol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.00754"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1473","DOI":"10.1007\/s00787-015-0768-3","article-title":"Psychiatric symptoms in adolescents: FKBP5 genotype\u2014early life adversity interaction effects","volume":"24","author":"Comasco","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"973","DOI":"10.1152\/physiolgenomics.00054.2018","article-title":"Adverse early life environment induces anxiety-like behavior and increases expression of FKBP5 mRNA splice variants in mouse brain","volume":"50","author":"Ke","year":"2018","journal-title":"Physiol. Genom."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1291","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.299.11.1291","article-title":"Association of FKBP5 polymorphisms and childhood abuse with risk of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in adults","volume":"299","author":"Binder","year":"2008","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1038\/nn.3275","article-title":"Allele-specific FKBP5 DNA demethylation mediates gene\u2013childhood trauma interactions","volume":"16","author":"Klengel","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Feil, K., Riedl, D., B\u00f6ttcher, B., Fuchs, M., Kapelari, K., Gr\u00e4\u00dfer, S., Toth, B., and Lampe, A. (2023). Higher prevalence of adverse childhood experiences in transgender than in cisgender individuals: Results from a single-center observational study. J. Clin. Med., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm12134501"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2019.09.001","article-title":"Differences in adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and quality of physical and mental health between transgender and cisgender sexual minorities","volume":"119","author":"Schnarrs","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Psychiatr. Res."}],"container-title":["Biomolecules"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2218-273X\/15\/2\/161\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,8]],"date-time":"2025-10-08T10:33:21Z","timestamp":1759919601000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2218-273X\/15\/2\/161"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,22]]},"references-count":107,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,2]]}},"alternative-id":["biom15020161"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/biom15020161","relation":{},"ISSN":["2218-273X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2218-273X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,22]]}}}